
Class Lift & & / 
Book 1 3 D _ 



REPORT 



The Reserve and Auxiliary Forces of England 



THE MILITIA OF SWITZERLAND. 



Prepared in 1900 

FOR 

PRESIDENT McKINLEY 

AND 

The HOIST. ELIHTJ ROOT, Secretary of War, 



BY 



William Cary Sanger, 

Then Inspector National Guard New York, and 
late Lieutenant-Colonel of Volunteers. 



W ' 




ON: 


GOVER' 


, j'6. 


NG OFFICE. 



-3 
REPORT 



ON 



The Reserve and Auxiliary Forces of England 




THE MILITIA OF SWITZERLAND. 



Prepared in 1900 

FOR 

PRESIDENT McKINLEY 

AND 

The HON. EIjIHTJ ROOT, Secretary- of War, 

BY 

William Cary Sanger, 

Then Inspector National Guard New York, and 
late Lieutenant-Colonel of Volunteers. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

19 3. 



*>*$ 



D. 0F g, 
OCT 14 1913 



LETTER OF INSTRUCTION. 



^ War Department, 

Washington, January 25, 1900. 
Sir: In the efforts which will be made to improve the organization 
of the U. S. Arnry, and to secure for it a homogeneous reserve, it is 
not only necessary that the fullest information should be obtained in 
regard to the way in which the problem of organizing reserve and 
auxiliary forces has been worked out in other countries, and especially 
in England, where the absence of compulsoiy military service makes 
their military conditions similar to our own, but it is desirable that a 
report on these questions should be made by an officer who has served 
in the Volunteers and in the National Guard. 

I have therefore been requested by the President to say to you that 
he hopes you may find it practicable to make a report to him in regard 
to the principles upon which other countries, but especially England, 
have organized their reserve and auxiliary forces, and in regard to 
the practical working of the English system in particular, including 
such other matters as may relate to the objects to be attained by your 
report. 

Very truly yours, 

Elihu Root, 
Secretary of War. 
Col. William Cary Sanger, 

Inspector National Guard New York, 

and late Lieutenant- Colonel of Volunteers. 



War Department, 

Washington, January 25, 1900. 
Sir: I desire to state that there not appearing to be any appropria- 
tion available for the work of preparing the report which you have 
this day been requested to undertake, you will not be authorized to 
incur any expense for which the United States is to be held responsible. 

Very truly yours, 

Elihu Root, Secretary of War. 
Col. William Cart Sanger, 

Inspector National Guard New York, 

and late Lieutenant- Colonel of Volunteers. 



LETTER TO THE SECRETARY OF WAR. 



War Department, 

Washington, February 16, 1903. 

Sir: In accordance with your wishes, I have reread, with a view to 
its publication, the report which I prepared for President McKinley in 
1900. No account is given of the changes which have been made either 
in England or Switzerland since the report was written. While it might 
at some future time be desirable to have these changes reported upon, 
it seems best now to have the report printed as it was submitted to you. 

In the report there are, as you know, repeated references to the 
fact that for over one hundred years preceding its writing there was 
no action taken by Congress to improve our militia system, notwith- 
standing the urgent recommendations which were made by Presidents 
and Secretaries of War from Washington's time. The nation has 
reason to rejoice that while you have been Secretary of War changes 
have been made by Congress and by departmental action which will 
correct many of the old-time defects, and which will permit the ability 
and energy of our officers and men to find opportunity for such intel- 
ligent development as will greatty increase the effectiveness of all our 
fighting forces, if unforeseen conditions should make it necessary to 
call them into active service. 

In addition to what I have already said to you regarding the courtesies 
shown me by all the Government officials and officers whom I met 
in England and Switzerland, it is proper that I should again refer to 
the very great aid which was given me in England by George Wynd- 
ham, Esq., the then Under Secretary of State for War, through whose 
kindness I was permitted to come in personal contact with the vol- 
unteers and the yeomanry under conditions which gave me the fullest 
opportunity for getting a clear understanding of the character of 
these forces and the nature of the work which they do; further- 
more Mr. Wyndham supplied me with many important memoranda, 
which I found of great value. By the courtesy of Col. Eustace Bal- 
four, commanding the London Scottish Regiment, I was enabled to 
attend the eastern maneuvers of this regiment and to see the officers 
and men of this excellent regiment engaged in 'practical field w r ork. 
Colonel Denney, commanding the Dunbarton regiment, supplied me 
with much valuable information on the general subject of financial 
questions connected with the administration of the volunteer regiments, 
and through his personal kindness I was permitted to see his regiment 
and meet many of his officers. Spencer Wilkinson, Esq. , whose writings 
on military subjects arc well known to you, wasof great assistance to me, 
and in the many discussions which we had on questions connected with 
England's military problem and the organization of her auxiliary forces 
I profited by his knowledge and experience. Capt. J. E. Clauson, R. E. , 
who had been selected by Lord Wolseley to supply me with informa- 
tion on certain questions, was of very great service not only in the 
suggestions which he made regarding my work, but by personally read- 
ing my report in order to insure absolute accuracy of statement. lam 



under special obligation to I. N. Ford, Esq., the London correspondent 
of the New York Tribune, whose assistance was most practical and 
valuable. 

In Switzerland I found the most hearty desire to aid in every way 
and a readiness to supply whatever information might be desired by 
our Government in connection with the organization and the work of 
the Swiss military forces. 

To those whom I have mentioned and to the many other officers and 
civilians whom I met in connection with my work, my thanks are due 
for the spirit of hearty and friendly interest in all phases of the work 
which I was doing for the President and for you. 

Very respectfully, 

Wm. Cart Sanger, 
Assistant Secretary of War. 
Hon. Elihu Root, 

Secretary of War. 



PART I. 

INTRODUCTK3N. 

EisraLA.]srD. 

THE ARMY. 
THE MILITIA. 



DTTBODTJCTIOK 



Sangerfield, N. Y., November 10, 1900. 
Hon. Elihu Root, 

Secretary of War, War Department, 

Washington, D. C. 

Sir: In compliance with the wish of the President set forth in your 
letter, a copy of which is annexed hereto, I have the honor to ask you 
to submit to the President the following- report "in regard to the prin- 
ciples upon which other countries, and especially England, have organ- 
ized their reserve and auxiliary forces, and in regard to the practical 
working of the English system," with certain other information relating 
to these subjects. 

It was nearly two thousand years after the world had received the 
glad tidings of "Peace on earth, good will toward men," when the 
Czar of all the Russias, whose will is law throughout a vast empire 
more than twice as large as the United States, and who numbers his 
soldiers by the millions, asked the civilized world to unite in an effort 
to maintain general peace and to lessen the burdens borne by so many 
countries in their preparations for war. 

Page after page of history tells of wars, waged sometimes with the 
noblest motives, but more often prompted by greed and ambition; and 
many of the pages are stained with the record of suffering and misery, 
and the indescribable horrors of sack and pillage. Even now when 
humanity has reached a higher level, bringing truer standards of action 
to people, rulers, and kings, Europe is like an armed camp, with heavy 
burdens on taxpayers to maintain the forces which are ever ready 
to destroy each other. 

It was 'the 24th day of August, 1898, when the Czar sent his first 
rescript" to all the governments represented at St. Petersburg. When 
this appeal for universal peace was sent forth, the people of the United 
States, who have always believed that their geographical conditions 
protected them against the probability of war with any European 
nation, were ending a contest with Spain in which American ships and 
men had been lighting 7,000 miles from home, and England was on 
the verge of a struggle in which she would have a quarter of a million 
men under arms at even a greater distance from the British Isles. 

Hidden in the future was the peril which was to threaten representa- 
tives of all the civilized nations of the world in the capital of China; 
a peril so great and attended with so many horrors that even the most 
earnest and devoted opponents of war united in bidding godspeed to 
the soldiers who were sent from America and Europe to rescue women 
and children from the dangers which threatened them. 

"This rescript will be found in the Appendix. 



It is undoubtedly true that Americans would hail with delight the 
realization of the Emperor's dream of universal peace. No'great and 
powerful nation in the entire history of the world has been more earn- 
est and sincere than America in its love of peace, in its efforts to lessen 
human suffering and to save its citizens from the expenses of preparing 
for war; and in our country, as elsewhere, it was an intense disappoint- 
ment that the peace conference was not more successful in hastening 
the time when, as was said in the imperial rescript, "the great con- 
ception of universal peace should triumph over the elements of trouble 
and discord." 

Americans should and will, in cooperation with their fellow-men the 
world over, exert their influence to make the principles of equity and 
right so powerfully dominate the relations of nations that battle and 
bloodshed will not stain the records of international controversies. 

But while Americans should spare no effort to aid those who, whether 
on the throne or in the pulpit, are laboring for the betterment of man- 
kind, only the foolish and the wicked will shut their eyes to existing 
facts. Much as we may long for peace, we must see that in the strange 
medley of the world's affairs war may at any time become inevitable, 
and when it comes the awful truth is written in letters of blood that the 
unready nation pays for its neglect of wise forethought in the need- 
less death and suffering of brave men, and far less important, although 
the taxpayer properly objects, in squandered and wasted treasure. 
Every war ever waged reiterates this truth and places an awful respon- 
sibilit} r on those who have prevented the precautions demanded by 
humanity and common sense. 

When' the youth and strength of our nation are dying in fever- 
stricken camps, when artillery and infantry are pouring out their life's 
blood in order to make obsolete guns and black powder effective against 
smokeless powder and modern rifles, when we are organizing a fighting 
force after the declaration of war, with divided counsels on all impor- 
tant questions, the people are properly and righteously indignant. 
But they ignore their own responsibility for the wretched conditions, 
and worse than that, when the victory is won, and the war ended, 
there are some who are not willing to profit by the awful lessons. 

It is true that, as a people, we love peace, but there is not a country 
in the world more eager to begin fighting at once when we make up 
our minds that there ought to be a fight. One of the most striking 
evidences of this temper was found in the attitude of the people when 
a conservative President sent a message to England which made war 
with that country more than possible. The fact that we were not in 
any way ready for a struggle with that country, and that in conse- 
quence a war would have required the needless sacrifice of thousands 
of lives, had no effect upon the people, and when the cloud had passed 
no effort was made to be better prepared for the next emergency. 

In the peaceful intervals between wars there is no nation on the 
globe which gives less thought or attention to those questions which 
must be wisely settled in advance in order to save the waste of life 
and treasure when war once begins. Other nations have at different 
times made the same terrible mistake. After the peace of 1819 England 
failed entirely to prepare for the next war, and the terrible experience 
of the Crimea was the result. At that time, as in every other crisis 
in the world's history, lack of preparation did not prevent war. When 
a nation has decided to fight it is as useless to tell a people that they 



are not ready for a struggle as to try to check a raging storm. The 
story of the Crimea is only one of many instances of the culpable neg- 
lect by the Anglo-Saxon people of the duty which a nation owes to 
the brave men who are going to fight its battles. 

England sent out to the Crimea an army of some 29,000 men; dur- 
ing the first year the casualties averaged nearly 3,000 a month, and 
after two years, more than 21,000 men had been buried, being more 
than the original number sent out. The reason for this is plainly told 
in official papers, and will have a strangely familiar sound to American 
ears. 

When the English army reached the Crimea it was without any 
adequate transports for moving the impedimenta, provisions or ammu- 
nition, and it is not an exaggeration to say that as an army it was 
practically immovable. The old wagon train, which had been organ- 
ized by the Duke of Wellington, had been deemed too expensive, and 
had gone out of existence; to resuscitate it on the breaking out of 
hostilities in time to be of service was impossible. 

Mr. Filder was placed at the head of the commissariat, and subse- 
quently said: 

None of the subordinate establishments absolutely necessary to the efficiency of a 
field commissariat existed at the outbreak of the war, and even the officers had to 
be collected from the most distant parts of the Empire; from Sierra Leone, Cape of 
Good Hope, and New South Wales, and of course by slow degrees. 

In the meantime I had to carry on the duties with the temporary assistance of 
gentlemen furnished from other public departments and wholly without experience 
in commissariat service. This inefficient state of the department when I took charge 
of it necessarily diverted much of my attention from the more important general 
arrangements of the service to the regulation of the details. 

With such a frank statement as this in regard to a war waged fifty 
years ago, there can be little excuse for our having both in 1861 and 
in 1898 put officers holding high and responsible positions in such a 
situation that their attention had to be diverted from the "important 
general arrangements of the service" to "the regulation of details" 
from which tney should in time of emergency have been absolutely 
free. 

All this lack of adequate preparation by England was paid for in the 
suffering of the soldiers; the troops, overworked, exposed, and with 
short rations and indifferent clothing, sickened and died. In January, 
1855, there were 4,000 sick before Sebastopol, and 8,000 at Scutari; 
9,248 died in the severe winter months, not including those killed in 
action. This was mainly due to want of transport animals, who had 
died from want of forage. 

No adequate medical staff corps existed at the outbreak of the war, 
and the report of the select committee states that "the suffering of the 
wounded was produced mainly by the want of an effective ambulance 
and partly from an insufficient supply of surgeons. The men in hos- 
pital suffered from insufficient medical attention, insufficient medicine, 
and an absence of medical comforts." One ray of brightness illumines 
this sad page of history; the work of Florence Nightingale, the "lady 
with the lamp," lightens the shadows of those dark days, and her noble 
and heroic work amid the sick and wounded has pointed the way to 
thousands of self-sacrificing women who since her time have alleviated 
human suffering. 

A repetition of the story of the awful cost of inadequate preparation 
is found in the case of France. During the years 1866-1870 Colonel 



Stoffel was the French military attache in Prussia, and during those 
years a series of reports were sent to his home GovernmeiTt, pointing* 
out in the clearest manner Prussia's readiness for war, her superiority 
in armament and organization, and supplying adequate information for 
the betterment of existing military conditions in France. It is need- 
less to say that both warnings and recommendations were ignored. 
France, unprepared, without proper organization, entered upon a 
struggle with the inevitable result which follows undertaking a great 
task without proper preparation. After the war she lost to Germany 
a piece of territory larger than the State of Connecticut, with a popu- 
lation of one and a half millions, and she paid a war indemnity of five 
milliards of francs, or one thousand million dollars, besides the mil- 
lions of dollars which were levied by the Germans from the depart- 
ments and cities which they occupied during the war. And in addition 
to that she lost on the field of battle the very flower of the nation, 
which could ill be spared. 

Our own history has its ugly record of useless death, of needless 
suffering, and of wasted treasure. The North was not prepared for 
the civil war, and to this fact was due, in a great measure, the long du- 
ration of the war, its long list of dead and wounded, and its enormous 
pension charges, which have amounted since 1861 to $2,423,592,188. 
This war taught in the clearest manner many lessons in regard to the 
organization of a fighting force and the need of proper training for 
line and staff officers; but despite the most earnest efforts of those 
men who, from patriotic motives, urged the necessity of profiting by 
these lessons, little or no interest was taken in an}^ of the proposals to 
improve the organization of the Arnry, to secure for it a reserve, to 
adopt an organization for the existing State forces which would make 
them effective for national purposes, to adequately prepare the staff 
departments for war, or to give officers the training necessary to fit 
them for high command. 

The story of the Spanish-American war has much which Ameri- 
cans must read with pain. For years the taxpayers in all the States 
had been paying large sums of money to maintain the National Guard 
or State militia, and yet when war was declared no one could tell what 
was the legal status of that force, or what it could or should be asked 
to do. Some of the State forces coupled their offers to volunteer with 
conditions which seriously hampered the action of the Federal authori- 
ties. The National Guard of some States opposed with great energy 
the legislation for increasing the Army. There was eveiy where doubt 
and uncertainty as to how the Volunteer Army should be enrolled, 
officered, and organized for service in the field; some of the volunteers 
left their States without proper shoes, others did guard duty wearing 
civilian clothes, and derby hats, and carrying sticks and clubs, while 
waiting for their uniforms and arms. At Santiago the medical, com- 
missary, and quartermaster departments were at the outset hampered 
in the performance of their work by the lack of adequate preparation 
on the part of the Government to meet the conditions which con- 
fronted the army there. Even in our own country there were times 
when the sanitation of some of the camps was disgracefully bad, when 
the hospital accommodations in some camps were inadequate, and 
when there were not enough doctors or nurses properly to care for 
the sick; but notwithstanding the fact that lives were useless^ sacri- 
ficed, because of inadequate preparation for war, there are certain 



people who oppose every effort to lessen in the future the needless loss 
of life through fear of what is called "militarism." 

So far from there being any real danger in this country from " mili- 
tarism," there is a deeply rooted and practically universal prejudice 
against any excessive influence of the military spirit; and this is one 
of our best and oldest race traditions, which for centuries has asserted 
itself with almost unnecessary aggressiveness in the history of the 
Anglo-Saxons. But our perfectly justifiable antagonism to militarism 
should not blind us to the fact that if we are to maintain any standing 
army at all, and if the States are to continue paying out money for 
their forces, it is the part of common sense and patriotism to secure for 
the Army and the National Guard that organization and training which 
will make them most effective to do the work for which they are main- 
tained; if we are to maintain a standing army, whether it be 100,000, 
50,000, or 5,000, it should be so organized and trained that it can ren- 
der the utmost possible service in defending the honor, the lives, and 
the property of the people; and its officers should be in character, 
training, and capacity the best which the country can produce; if the 
State forces are maintained with a view to national defense in time 
of need, there can be no excuse for not devising in time of peace the 
best plan for utilizing their services; and if they are not to be so 
used when war is declared, it is an injustice to the members of the 
force and to the States not to have that fact known by all; and if it is 
admitted, as admitted it must be, that the Army and the State forces 
combined will not be numerically strong enough to cany on any great 
war, it is our plain duty to decide in advance what is the wisest and 
best plan for expanding our fighting force when such action is 
necessary. 

These are only some of the many questions demanding answer, for 
a nation, like an individual, has many serious problems to solve dur- 
ing the course of its existence. Whether there is a limit to the length 
of a nation's life beyond which it can not endure, or whether a people 
might prolong indefinitely their national life by avoiding those mis- 
takes which have caused the decay of so many great civilizations, we 
need not attempt to answer here. The centuries of the past are strewn 
with the ruins of nations which have risen to power and then have 
fallen into decay. Egypt, Phoenicia, Assyria, Chaldea, Persia, Greece, 
Rome, are, as we study the strange history of the human race, like 
so many death's heads at the feast to make nations pause and think, 
for in every instance the final blow which has destroyed the power of 
each of these great races has been struck by some more powerful, 
vigorous, and virile nation, and has been the triumph of brute force 
more or less intelligently directed; and a tainted public and private 
life has invariably prepared the way for the destroyer. 

No one can foretell what destiny the future ma}^ have in store for 
us. We know that our greatest safeguard against disaster and our 
greatest help to a position of influence and power will be found in 
the virtue of our people, in their love of right and their hate of 
wrong, combined with vigor of mind and body. But all these alone 
are not enough to protect a country against the needless sacrifice of 
life and treasure which must result from being unprepared to resist 
the attacks of a powerful aggressor. 

That everyone should labor to prevent war is as right and proper 
as that they should labor to prevent poverty, sin, or civil disorder. 



But it does not protect a city from riot and disturbance to abolish the 
police or to maintain it in an inefficient condition, badly organized, or 
improperly trained. It does not prevent the spread of pestilence to 
have an inefficient or incompetent force of sanitary inspectors. It does 
not lessen sickness or protect from death to have doctors who are not 
properly educated or adequately qualified, and in exactly the same 
way it does not conduce to the peace of the world to maintain a mili- 
tary force which is badly organized or defectively trained. 

It is right that every citizen should have his own convictions as to 
the size of the Army, how much it should cost, how many men should 
be maintained in the State forces, and how much money the State 
should expend for the maintenance of that force, and he is entitled to 
make every effort to have his ideas carried into effect. But there can 
be absolutely no excuse for the man who, when it has once been 
decided how large our Army is to be, contends that it should be badly 
organized, or that no system or plan should be adopted for the organi- 
zation of the citizen soldiers, upon whom we must to a great extent 
rely. Hardly any subject which concerns the American people has 
been so obscured by irrelevant and illogical arguments as the organi- 
zation and training of our fighting forces, and some wise and good 
men have failed to see that those who oppose the efforts which are 
made to settle in advance the questions which must be decided when 
war is declared are directly contributing to the unnecessary loss of life. 

Let the people make the Army as small as, in their best judgment, 
they think wise; let them, if they think it necessary, reduce the num- 
bers and the cost of the State forces, and while there is ample room 
for difference of opinion as to the wisdom of such reductions, at least 
that course does not in itself of necessity mean defective organiza- 
tion or inadequate training. But whatever may be the opinion of the 
people in regard to the questions of number and cost, there can be no 
excuse for not giving the forces which do exist the best possible 
organization, and the training which will make them competent to do 
the work for which they exist. 

To have an army without a reserve is to-da} r to ignore principles 
which every civilized nation except our own has accepted as funda- 
mental. To maintain at very considerable expense forty little inde- 
pendent armies, with differing degrees of efficiency and without 
knowing what their duties are to be when war is declared, is to insure 
confusion at the outbreak of hostilities and to make dissatisfaction 
inevitable. Our refusal to settle in advance these and other necessary 
questions has alwa} T s resulted in an unnecessary number of incompe- 
tent or untrained officers, in needless deaths and gross extravagances. 

It was not evidence of either patriotism or intelligence that miles of 
railway cars accumulated on the tracks in Florida at the outbreak of 
the Spanish-American war, and that car after car had to be broken 
open in order to find the articles which were needed. Nor is it entirely 
worthy of a great and generous people that, after they had insisted 
upon the maintenance of conditions which made confusion absolutely 
inevitable, they should attempt to place the entire blame for all that 
went amiss upon the shoulders of some few men who were only partially 
at fault for the unsatisfactory working of a bad and defective system. 
If we should decide to ignore the lessons which experience has taught 
us, and to enter upon our next war unprepared, let us at least have the 
fairness to put upon our own shoulders that portion of the blame 



9 

which should properly rest there for our failures and mistakes and for 
the needless suffering of the sick and wounded. 

In discussing how we should organize our Army and our State forces 
two important facts should be kept clearly in mind. The first is that 
the strongest arguments in favor of getting the best possible organiza- 
tion for the Army and of giving it an effective and homogeneous reserve 
are humanitarian and economic, and the second is that questions of 
organization and training are entirely independent of the question of 
the numerical strength of the forces. * The best system of organization 
should be adopted, because it will save the useless sacrifice of life, the 
needless infliction of suffering, and the wanton waste of the people's 
money. Every dictate of humanity demands that the question of 
organization should be honestly studied and wisely settled. 

It is, of course, true, that our vast territory can never be occupied 
by an enemy and that our enormous population can never be con- 
quered. It is equally true that we have never been beaten, and it is 
thoroughly characteristic of our race to believe that we never shall 
be; but all this is entirely wide of the mark. War brings in its train 
misery and suffering, and the longer any war lasts the greater will be 
the misery and suffering. The duration of every war in which we 
engage, the number of men killed and wounded, the number of 
stricken homes and fatherless children, and the financial burden which 
will fall upon the taxpayer, all will be affected by the way in which 
the question of the organization of the Army and of a reserve is treated 
by the people, for this question is the foundation of all preparation for 
war, and preparation means less suffering and less cost. 

It can not be too strongly emphasized that questions of organization 
and training are entirely independent of the question of how strong 
numerically our armed forces should be. Men will differ as to the 
size of the Army and the strength of the State forces; but whether 
we keep a handful of men under arms or have a force adequate to our 
needs there can be no room for difference of opinion in regard to the 
proposition that such forces as we do maintain should have the best 
possible organization. 

We always have been and always shall be largely dependent upon 
our citizen soldiery to fight our battles, and the splendid qualities 
shown in all our wars by our citizen soldiers only emphasize what we 
have always known — that an effective militia is a force of the greatest 
value. To adopt some plan by which the machinery for calling to the 
nation's defense those citizens who are always ready to render such 
service when needed, so that in time of national peril the fighting 
force will be, so far as possible, automatically called into being, is a 
duty which should be plainly recognized by all political parties, as well 
as by all of the people. 

The mere imitation by us of systems which have worked well in other 
countries would be a mistake which it would be inexcusable to make, 
for it would be as foolish as it is unnecessary. We should know what 
other countries have done and how they have done' it, but we should 
adopt the system of organization and method of training and instruc- 
tion which will best meet our needs and conditions; and in order to 
find the principles upon which this work should rest we need not go 
beyond the Constitution of the United States, that wonderful doc- 
ument in which can be found the basis for every duty which an Amer- 
ican citizen should perform. 



10 

The following- pages tell something of the way in which England 
and Switzerland nave organized their armed forces. 

The work of preparing this report has been undertaken and finished 
with the hope that it might, to some extent, help those who are trying 
to decide how, under our political, commercial, and social conditions, 
the best and wisest plan may be formulated for organizing our Army 
and militia, and with the still stronger hope that even those who wish 
to reduce the numerical strength of our Army will admit that it is our 
duty to decide in time of peace how we are to organize the forces 
which are to be our protection if war is forced upon us. 

England's military problem. 

In the present condition of the world's affairs every nation must 
decide how it will prepare to meet the awful responsibility of sending 
soldiers to the field of battle. The most earnest and conscientious 
advocate of peace must admit that in our day and generation no 
country can escape this responsibility, and how to prepare for this 
work may be called the military problem which confronts every 
nation. 

England's problem is unlike thatof any other nation, and is the resultof 
conditions which have gradually arisen with the expansion of England's 
Empire. There is no country in the world, except America, in which 
national responsibilities are to-day less due to a settled policy than 
England. Her Empire has grown, not because the nation mapped out 
a clearty defined line of imperial policy, but because the people have 
followed a race instinct, which has made them expand, just as some 
strange law makes lower forms of animal life destroy and absorb the 
weaker organisms with which they come in contact. 

The only deliberate and carefully thought-out plan for territorial 
aggrandizement which the English nation ever formed was a dismal 
failure. When the Edwards, with a defective claim to the throne of 
France, attempted to make that country a province of the English 
realm they wasted blood and money in vain. The great Empire of 
to-da} r was never planned in advance. There never was a time when 
any Englishman could have asserted with truth that his nation had 
determined upon the extension of the imperial domains which took 
place in the succeeding generation. 

The inheritance from Norman William, and the great dowry of 
Eleanor of Aquitaine had brought to the English crown in the reign 
of Henry II the entire western coast of what is now called France; 
but in the years that followed, despite the efforts of the Edwards, the 
continental possessions passed from English rule. But when Magellan, 
Vasco de Gama, Columbus, and Cabot made their voyages of discovery, 
the spirit of trade and commerce introduced new conditions of national 
growth, and unexplored continents became potent factors in the devel- 
opment of the Old World. 

England's condition, almost unconscious^ and without any definite 
and settled purpose, was gradually and wonderfully changed. From 
1497," when she acquired Newfoundland, to the present day, when she 
has just extended her rule in South Africa, she has been acquiring, by 
treaty, by purchase, and by conquest, colonies and dependencies, until 
now there is embraced -within the British Empire beyond the British 



«For the dates of the acquisition of territory, see Appendix. 



11 

Isles over 11,000,000 square miles of territory, more than one-fifth 
of all the land on the globe, and about 310,000,000 of people, more 
than a quarter of the total estimated population of the earth. She is 
charged with the duty of maintaining this vast territorial Empire, and 
to do this she should be able to resist aggression in any part of her 
Empire and at the same time successfully to defend her island home 
from attack. 

England's home defense is absolutely dependent upon her control 
of the seas, and it is the clear recognition of this fact which has led 
the English people cheerfully to spend the enormous sums which have 
made her navy so formidable. Should the English fleet be destroyed 
England could be starved into submission, and yet without the de- 
struction of the fleet the contingency of an attempt to invade the 
country can not be entirely ignored; so that in addition to the fleet, 
and in addition to the forces which must always be maintained in the 
colonies and dependencies, there should be a force sufficient in num- 
bers and adequately trained to protect the country in the case of 
invasion. 

How England has attempted to meet her great responsibilities must 
be of especial interest to us in America for many reasons, not the least 
of which is the fact that in both countries all military and naval service 
is purely voluntary, and each country has a deep-rooted antagonism to 
a large standing army and an innate dread of the development of the 
military power of the Executive or of the Crown ; and last, but not 
least, the people of both countries have always been most reluctant to 
pay taxes in time of peace for military purposes. 

England has adopted certain clearly defined principles in accordance 
with which she has developed her military power. Starting with the 
proposition that all military service must be based upon a voluntary 
contract between the State and the individual, she maintains first an 
army, the officers and men giving their entire time during the period 
of their service to their military duties; next she has a militia force, 
composed of men whose military duties are limited, ordinarily, to one 
month in a year, and then in what might be called the third line, she 
has the volunteers and yeomanry, whose military training is obtained 
during a limited number of evenings in the winter, and a period of 
camp service which seldom exceeds one week in a year. 

The experience through which England has passed in her South 
African campaign has led many people to the conclusion that the prin- 
ciples upon which the English forces are organized, and the methods 
by which they are trained, must be changed; but as the Government 
and the people have not yet decided what changes, if any, are to be 
made, it will only be possible in what follows to describe the existing 
conditions and to tell how England met the unexpected demand for so 
large a body of troops in South Africa. 

The strength of the army numerically is governed first of all by the 
number of men which must be maintained beyond seas. As this force 
must of necessity spend only a portion of its time in foreign service, 
a force, intended to be equal in number to that which serves abroad, is 
maintained at home for the purpose of supplying the necessary drafts 
to the foreign regiments, for strengthening them in case of necessity, 
and for providing at short notice three army corps ready for service 
either at home or abroad, and capable from time to time of sending 

14590—03 2 



12 

out such, comparatively speaking, small forces as may be needed for 
their distant campaigns. 

It will be seen at once that an army so organized is not adequate for 
home defense in case of serious trouble. The militia, a force which is 
as old as the history of the people itself, is maintained at a strength 
of about 110,000, composed in its rank and file of much the same class 
of men which supplied the army with recruits, and officered by men 
of education and position in their counties. This force can not be 
ordered for duty outside of the United Kingdom. But this addition 
does not supply all that is needed, and a force of volunteers exists, 
numbering in all about 230,000/' which up to 1899 has done its mili- 
tary duty entirely without compensation to its individual members. 

It is composed of professional men, merchants, tradesmen, clerks, 
and in fact of representatives from all the different occupations and 
professions throughout the country. This force is not liable to be 
called into the service of the Crown except in case of threatened or 
apprehended invasion, and it is not available, as are our State forces, 
for the maintenance of civil order. 

The army is organized territorially, and each regiment is allotted to 
a district, the regulars, militia, and volunteers in each district consti- 
tute what is known as a regiment, which, as a matter of fact, is merely 
an administrative organization. 

The yeomanry, a body of mounted troops numbering about 10,000,® 
are, like the militia and volunteers, only available for the purposes of 
home defense. 

It will be seen that under this system a man who wishes to perform 
an} T military service can, by selecting the organization which he joins, 
give such time to his military duties as his business and personal 
inclinations will permit. In what follows there is a historical sketch 
of the military system and a somewhat detailed account of the organi- 
zation of the different forces. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

The plan upon which the armed forces of Great Britain are organ- 
ized is the result of the groAvth and development of a system, the 
beginning of which, like those of all English institutions, goes far back 
into the past. 

The influence of the past is everywhere present in England, where 
among its priceless national treasures are still preserved the charter 
granted by Alfred in the year 873, and that still greater charter 
wrested from John in 1215, which, with the royal seal still clinging to 
the parchment, is one of the foundation stones on which rest the rights 
and liberties of which English and Americans are to-day so justly 
proud. Before explaining in detail the present organization of the 
British forces, it ma} T be of interest to give a sketch of the changes 
through which the forces have passed in the process of evolution by 
which the}' have come to the condition in which they are to-da}^. 

THE STANDING ARMY AND THE BILL OF RIGHTS. 

Although the English, like all other nations, have waged wars from 
the beginning of their history, the standing army in Great Britain, 
as distinctly recognized by the laws of the land, is only about two 

a See Appendix. 



13 

hundred years old. When the Stuarts came back to the throne in 1060 
after the Protectorate of the Crom wells, a few regiments were main- 
tained. "Officers were commissioned to raise regiments which, as a 
rule, bore their names, as Colonel the Earl of Dunbartoivs Regiment 
of Foot; Colonel Edward Lloyd's Regiment of Foot; Colonel the Earl 
of Mar's Fusiliers; at the time very many of these regiments took for 
their titles the names of the Sovereign, Queen, or Prince." a 

The only regiment of the parliamentary army which was not dis- 
banded after the restoration was Colonel Monck's Regiment of Foot, 
organized in 1650, and which became the Coldstream Regiment of Foot 
Guards in 1670. 

But it was not until 1689, when William and Mary came to the 
throne and the bill of rights was passed, that the status of the army 
was fixed as it exists to-day. 

The act begins with the statement that "the raising or keeping of a 
standing army within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- 
land in time of peace, unless it be with the consent of Parliament, is 
against the law;" the bill of rights condemned the action of James II 
in raising an army without Parliamentary sanction, and specified the 
number of men authorized to be maintained. 

The first mutiny act was passed when Parliament was startled by 
the mutiny of the Royal Scots when William appointed the Duke of 
Schoneberg to be their colonel, just after Parliament had, "without 
consulting the regiment, coolly transferred its allegiance from James 
Stuart to William of Nassau." In speaking of this error, Fortescue, 
in his History of the British Army, says that good came out of evil, 
for it frightened the House of Commons into passing the first mutiny 
act. As his view of this act and its effect is different from the general 
idea, I quote what he says: 

&It is true that the act was passed for six months only, and that it provided for no 
more than the punishment of mutiny and desertion; hut it recognized at least that 
military crime can not he adequately checked by civil law, and it gave the army more 
or less of a statutory right to exist; but readers should be warned once for all against 
the common fallacy that the existence of the army ever depended on the passing of 
the annual mutiny act. The statute simply empowered the King to deal with cer- 
tain military crimes for which the civil law made no provision. 

It made a great parade of the statement that the raising or keeping of a standing 
arfty in time of peace is against the law, but the standing army was in existence for 
nearly thirty years before the mutiny act was passed, and continued to exist, as will 
be seen, for two short but distinct periods between 1689 and 1701 without the help 
of any mutiny act whatever. If therefore the keeping of a standing army in time 
of peace be against the law, it can only be said that during those periods Parliament 
deliberately voted money for the violation of the law, as indeed it is always prepared 
to do when convenient to itself. 

The mutiny act was not a protection to liberty; Parliament for the present reserved 
for itself no check on the military code that might be framed by the King; and the 
act was, therefore, rather a powerful weapon placed in the hands of the sovereign. 
Nevertheless, the passing of the mutiny act remains always an incident of the first 
importance in the history of the army, and the story of its origin is typical of the 
attitude of Parliament toward that long-suffering body. Every concession, nay, 
every commonest requirement, must be wrung from it by the pressure of fear. 

Green, in his History of the English People, says in regard to this act: 

The hatred of a standing army which had begun under Cromwell had only deep- 
ened under James; but with the continental war the existence of an army was a 
necessity. As yet, however, it was a force which had no legal existence. The 

«See "The British Army," p. 5, line 27: 

*> Vol. I, p. 335, of Fortescue's History of the British Army. 



14 

soldier was simply an ordinary subject; there were no legal means of punishing 
strictly military offenses or of providing for military discipline; and the assumed 
power of billeting soldiers in private houses had been taken away by the law. The 
difficulty both of Parliament and the army was met by the mutiny act. 

The powers requisite for discipline in the army were conferred by Parliament on 
its officers and provision made for the pay of the force, but both pay and disciplinary 
powers were granted only for a single year. The mutiny act, like the grant of sup- 
plies, has remained annual ever since the revolution; and as it is impossible for the 
State to exist without supplies, or for the army to exist without discipline and pay, 
the annual assembly of Parliament has become a matter of absolute necessity. The 
greatest constitutional change which our history has witnessed was thus brought 
about in an indirect but perfectly efficient way. 

It is not without interest, although quite apart from the subject we 
are considering, that the Bill of Rights established the "right of the 
people through its representatives to depose the King, to change the 
order of succession, and to set on the throne whom they would." 
Green says: 

All claim of divine right or hereditary right independent of the law was formally 
put an end to by the election of William and Mary. Since their day no English sov- 
ereign has been able to advance any claim to the Crown save the claim which rested 
on a particular clause in a particular act of Parliament. William and Mary and Anne 
were sovereigns simply by virtue of the bill of rights. George I and his successors 
have been sovereigns solely by virtue of the Act of Settlement. 

OPPOSITION TO STANDING ARMY. 

The feeling of opposition to a large standing army was so strong 
that it was not until 1792, more than a hundred years after the exist- 
ence of an army was authorized by Parliament, that permanent bar- 
racks were provided. "The Army Book of the British Empire 1 ' says: 

Parliament invariably refused to provide these barracks on the ground that it 
would lead the Crown to retain an unnecessary number of troops. The country 
clung to the old tradition that forces should be raised for a war and be disbanded 
when peace was proclaimed, and it long resisted the creation of an army prepared 
against eventualities, to meet the requirements of defense, to guard national inter- 
ests, with a school of technical leadership and a trained personnel of men ready for 
an expansion in time of war. 

This statement of the feeling of the people toward the army over a 
century ago, describes with singular accuracy a feeling which has 
always been strong in America. 

The feeling against the army in England was partly due to the way 
in which, for so many years, it was maintained. 

Prior to 1783 the regiment was the important unit, and it — 

was recruited, paid, and kept up by a sort of contract between the Crown and the 
colonel. The latter received through the regimental agent the pay and allowance 
for the establishment, and made his own terms as to recruiting through his captains. 
The allowance which covered clothing went to the "stock purse " of the regiment, 
and after settlement of the year's accounts the balance was divided among the 
captains. 

The officers thus had a pecuniary interest in maintaining the regiment, in prevent- 
ing desertions and waste; but the door was open to fraud and false returns. More- 
over, when there was pressure for men, as was often the case, recruiting was 
" facilitated" by arrangements for passing into the service bad characters- -men from 
the criminal and vagabond classes. During this period soldiers were allowed to be 
drafted for foreign service to any regiment, a measure attended with much hardship. 

Fraud on the Government and harsh treatment of the soldier were for long char- 
acteristic of our army institutions. They took deep root in the memories of the 
people and generated distrust for the military profession which is recognizable in a 
not inconsiderable degree even to the present day. 



15 



ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL. 



The army as organized in the reign of Charles II numbered about 
5,000 men, consisted of two regiments of horse and six of foot. Its 
affairs were directed by a general in chief command. 

In 1661 a secretary at war was appointed, through whom, as political secretary for 
military business, the King's commands were issued; but it was not till about one 
hundred years later, in 1783, that with the passing of Mr. Burke's act the secretary 
at war came to be regarded as a minister responsible to Parliament. 

As a result of this act, when the long war with France, lasting from 1793 to 1815, 
began, the constitution and organization of the army had been modified. Regiments 
had ceased to manage their financial affairs and recruiting; the power of the war 
office had increased under the direction of the secretary at war, who was a member 
of Parliament, and the duties of commander in chief were assigned to a general 
officer, whereby a larger measure of continuity was given to the government and dis- 
cipline of the army. 

The Army Book for the British Empire, from which quotations 
have been made so freely because of its semiofficial character, contains 
the following statement in regard to the attitude of England during 
the period immediately following the close of the war, which might 
word for word be used to describe the attitude of our people at the 
close of any one of our wars: 

The war has been successful, the country was glad to be rid of military questions, 
and while chary of supplies was content to leave military legislation to take care of 
itself. 

Any attempt to improve the organization of the army was rendered 
especially difficult by the fact that the "central military administra- 
tion was weakly organized, being divided between the secretary of 
state for the colonies, the secretary at war, the commander in chief, 
and the master general and board of ordnance." 

It is interesting to note that Mr. Burke, whose record as a statesman 
has been of great interest to Americans, saw the evils of this organi- 
zation of the military administration, and that he recommended changes 
which would have done away with the anomalies and hindrances of this 
cumbersome system; and it may be some little consolation to those 
who in other countries have recommended wise and necessaiy changes, 
only to find that their recommendations were ignored, to know that 
the wise counsel of Mr. Burke was not acted upon until half a century 
after his death. 

There can be no doubt that during the period of the long peace the service of the 
soldier had far too much of a penal character. This was the period when punish- 
ment by flogging was in full force, sentences of three to five hundred lashes being 
common, and this degrading punishment was inflicted in profound peace for military 
offenses which in these days would have a light sentence. The tone which this 
gave to the service was long enduring. All armies are highly conservative institu- 
tions, and the enforcement of a severe repressive system led to the establishment of 
a school of thought and treatment which lasted long after the abandonment of the 
system itself had been decreed. 

There can be little doubt but that the feeling in America of opposi- 
tion to the Army, which has manifested itself with more or less strength 
at all times in our history, is one of our inheritances from the mother 
country. Certain it is that many of our people have failed to realize 
the complete change which has come over the Army in recent years 
or to know the excellent personal character of the enlisted men who 
made up our little army of 25,000 at the outbreak of the Spanish war. 



16 

The time between the peace of 1819 and the beginning of the Cri- 
mean -war in 1851 has been aptly called b} T military writer* in England 
the "dead period/' There were no militia enrolled, no reserve of any 
kind, and the volunteers disappeared. 

There was little or no interest in the questions which touched the 
preparation for those emergencies which inevitably arise in the life of 
every great nation, and the trying experience through which England 
passed in the Crimean war was the inevitable result of the nation's 
indifference. 

The system of paying bounties on enlistment was adopted, and legal 
questions arose in connection with the enlistments which resulted in 
actions at law. One writer in commenting on those legal proceedings 
sa3 r s that thej" "interfered as some thought with the morale of the 
men." 

In January, 1817, the Duke of Wellington wrote a letter, which was 
published a }^ear later and which plainly stated the necessity for some 
action on the part of England to improve their military conditions. 
It might properly be compared with the letter which Governor Tilden 
wrote some years' ago with reference to our national defenses, but it 
led to no practical result. The letter, which called forth at the time 
of its publication very severe criticism upon the Duke, has seemed to 
me of sufficient interest to justify attaching a copy to this report. It 
is especially interesting to us because of the great value which he 
attaches to the militia. 

In setting forth what he considers to be the dangers of the situation 
he says, "The measure upon which I have earnestly entreated different 
administrations to decide — it is constitutional and has been invariably 
adopted in time of peace for the last eighty years — is to raise, embody, 
organize, and discipline the militia." And he says that if he could 
have this force to protect the countiw, " I would engage for its defense, 
old as I am." 

It was necessary, however, for the countiy to have the rude shock 
of disappointment and surprise which the Crimean war brought to 
give it a realizing sense of actual conditions, and even then, just as 
with us, progress toward better conditions was slow, and, in many 
respects, for a long time unsatisfactory. 

During this war England raised a foreign legion, a course which 
is now generally condemned by the English military authorities them- 
selves, and which in all probability will never be followed again. The 
experience of England was that of every nation which undertakes a 
great work for which it is not prepared. The Army Book, in com- 
menting on the " painful nature of the experiences met with owing to 
this unprcparedness," says: "One redeeming feature beyond that of 
the high qualities displayed by the troops engaged, may be maintained, 
and that is the pluck and endurance manifested by the country at large 
up to the veiw end of the contest, which it was fully prepared to con- 
tinue, and was only induced to abandon after much hesitation." 

In England and America we always have the bravery and heroism 
of our soldiers to console us when we are confronted with the record 
of mismanagement, but let us remember that it is little to the credit of 
a rich and wise people to force its heroes to needless suffering by 
refusing to take those precautions which would protect its soldiers 
from useless death and pain. 



17 

CHANGES IN MILITARY ORGANIZATION. 

In the years that followed the Crimean war and Indian mutiny a 
succession of events combined to excite public interest in England and 
keep alive the sense of weakness inspired by the Crimean experience 
and to point the way to a new order of things. There was a political 
convulsion of Europe in 1848-19; the bitter feeling in France against 
England after the plot against the life of the Emperor Napoleon in 
1858, the French campaign in Italy in 1859, the civil war in the United 
States in .1861, the Schleswig-Holstein war in 1864, the successes of 
the Prussian army in the Seven Weeks War against Austria in 1866, 
and the still more striking successes of the German armies in 1870-71, 
all emphasized the terrible consequences of military inefficiency, and 
the penalty which a country pays for neglecting the warnifig of wis- 
dom. England at last recognized the importance of making a change 
in its military conditions, and began the creation of what may be 
termed, in its military history, the modern system. 

With Mr. CardwelFs administration began the modern system in 
the English army. The changes which were begun in his time, and 
which since then have been in some cases slightly modified, were the 
system of short service accompanied b} T the creation of a reserve, the 
creation of the so-called militia reserve, and the bringing of the militia, 
the yeomanry, and the volunteers under the supervision of the war 
office. At the same time the administrative work of the office was 
greatly facilitated by dividing it into three great departments — mili- 
tary, control or supply, and financial. 

Another change of importance accomplished at the same time was 
the abolition of purchase. The system of buying commissions had 
been operative in the cavahy and infantry, but had never been applied 
in the artillery and engineers. This S} T stem was abolished in 1871, its 
abolition being largely due to the efforts of Sir George Trevelyan, a 
name which has a special interest at the present time for Americans by 
reason of the history of the war of the Revolution, which he is now 
writing. 

Under the old system, obtaining a commission, securing promo- 
tion, and therefore, though indirectly, the chance of winning distinc- 
tion were to a large extent matters of money, commissions in the army 
having a recognized price, which had to be paid before one could be 
secured. 

As Mr. Cardwell said in the House of Commons, the army was prac- 
tically " in pledge " to the officers. "The selection, or at least the sift- 
ing out, of the officers for higher regimental command— an imperious 
necessity — was impeded at every turn by the vested right of money 
sunk in the regulation (and worse still, in the over regulation) prices 
of commissions in expectation of its return." 

It is interesting to note that this change was opposed most earnestly 
by many men who thought that the direst calamities would befall the 
English army if the commissions were not limited to men who had 
money enough to buy them. 

Possibly the most important feature of Mr. Cardwell's reforms was 
the introduction of the present short-service system, accompanied as 
it was with the creation of a reserve. 

As the English military system rests upon voluiatary service, enlist- 



18 

ment is always based upon an agreement between the soldier and the 
Crown. The conditions of this agreement are such that tke man may 
enlist for long or short service, and after he has enlisted it is possible 
under certain conditions to modify the terms of his original enlistment.* 6 
Under the act of 1847, "the great majority of men served for twenty- 
one years, but this was subsequently reduced to an enlistment for 
twelve. The act of 1370 did not change the period of enlistment, but 
it reduced the time spent with the colors, and put the soldier the bal- 
ance of his term of the enlistment in the reserve. Now, in the infan- 
try, the soldier serves six years with the colors if at home, or seven 
years if sent abroad, and the rest of his time he has in the reserve. 
When in the reserve, no duty is required, the men draw their pay, 
and must join their regiments if ordered to do so." b 

The armv reserve is divided into four sections, known as Sections 
A, B, C, and D. 

Section A is a special section of 5,000 men, selected from those who 
are in their first year of reserve service; the men in this section are 
available to put the battalions intended for small expeditions on their 
war strength without calling out all the reserves. Men of this class 
receive 1 shilling a day as reserve pay. 

Section B consists of men who have completed their service with the 
colors and are working out the remainder of their limited engagement. 
These men receive 6 pence per day as reserve pay. 

Section C is composed of men who convert army service into reserve 
service. "This includes all men whose conditions of service have been 
varied by the secretary of state so as to allow them, instead of serving 
with the colors during their whole period of army service, to enter the 
reserve at once for the residue of the term of their original enlistment. 
Their reserve pay is 6 pence per diem." 

Section D is a supplementary reserve composed of men who, after 
completing their first period of engagement, are enlisted to serve for 
a further period of four years in this class. "Men of Section D on 
mobilization are to be employed as grooms and drivers. " In any branch 
of the infantry onl} r men who have been trained as mounted infantry 
or are accustomed to the management of horses are enlisted. The 
reserve pay is 4 pence per diem. 

The reserves have been called out in 1878 in consequence of strained 
relations with Russia, in 1882 during the Egyptian campaign, as well 
as in the Boer war, and in every instance the commander in chief and 
other officers have expressed the opinion that the system worked well. 

A more detailed statement of the working of this system in the 
present war will be given later. 

Another important change made in 1873, and somewhat modified in 
1881, was the adoption of the "localization scheme," or the organiza- 
tion of the infantry regiments on a territorial basis, the amalgamation 
of the militia with the line in each district, and the affiliation of the 
volunteers in each district to the new formation of the line and militia. 

The "localization scheme" was the permanent association of each 
regiment with a certain defined district from which the regulars were, 
if possible, to be drawn, but as a matter of fact, the actual identifica- 
tion of a regiment with its district has never been very close, and 

«For length of service and change of conditions of service, see Appendix. 
°The British Army, Past and Present, by General Adye. 



19 

recruiting is by no means limited to men belonging to the regimental 
district. 

Before this territorial system was adopted the infantry regiments 
were formed and recruited without regard to locality, as is now done 
in our Army, and they were numbered from 1 to 109, and were known 
by their numbers, as the First Foot, or the Sixtieth Foot; the only 
exception to this being the Foot Guards, which were known as the 
Coldstream, the Grenadier, and the Scots Guards, and the rifle brigade, 
which had no numbers. 

With the change in 1873 the countiy was, for the purpose of mili- 
tary organization, divided into districts. England and Scotland were 
divided into ten districts, called district commands, and Ireland into 
three. Each district command was subdivided into regimental dis- 
tricts, and each regimental district had its own infantry regiment, 
which, instead of being called by its number as formerly, took the 
name of the district, and, theoretically at least, was recruited from 
men living in that district. 

Old regiments were all assigned to the new regimental districts; in 
some cases one regiment only would be allotted to a district, and then 
divided into two battalions, which became the first and second battalions 
of the new regiment; in other cases two regiments would be assigned 
to the new district, each regiment forming a battalion of the new regi- 
ment. 

It may not be out of place to explain here the relation of the militia 
and the volunteer forces to these districts. The militia was amalga- 
mated with the line, each militia regiment becoming a battalion of the 
new regiment in its district. This change was not finally effected 
until 1881. A Parliamentary committee, speaking in 1877 of the pro- 
posed formation to contain line and militia battalions, said: 

Are its battalions to be looked upon as being united merely for administrative pur- 
poses, or are they to be viewed as constituent parts of one body? We have no hesi- 
tation in replying that they should be constituent parts of one body. We consider 
that this is best to be effected by their being treated as one regiment, such regiment 
bearing the territorial designation, the line battalions being the first and second, the 
militia battalions being the third and fourth, of such territorial regiment, the depot 
being common to all. 

General Adye, in "The British Army Past and Present," says: 

These opinions of the committee of 1 877 were stated in such plain language, and 
their arguments were so convincing in their general scope, as to be almost irresist- 
able. In 1881 their recommendations were carried out, and are now in full force. 

The linking of the volunteers to the new formation was not so close 
as that of the militia, but all volunteer organizations in each regi- 
mental district were changed into battalions, and for all administrative 
purposes became parts of the new regiment, being called the first, 
second, etc., volunteer battalions of that regiment. 

These changes can best be illustrated by giving the facts in regard 
to certain regiments. 

On the adoption of the territorial system the old First Foot was 
assigned to Regimental District No. 1. It was divided into two bat- 
talions, which became the first and the second battalions of the Royal 
Scots (Lothian Regiment), that being the territorial name of the regi- 
ment in that district. 

The militia organization in that district which had been called the 
Edinburgh Light Infantry Militia became the third battalion of the 



20 

new regiment, and the five volunteer organizations in the district 
became, respectively, the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth volun- 
teer battalions; the entire force of two line battalions, one militia 
battalion, and live volunteer battalions constituting the Royal Scots 
(Lothian Regiment). 

The infantry is all organized in the manner described, except the 
guards, the King's Royal Rifle Corps, and the rifle brigade, which are 
not organized territorially. The three regiments of Foot Guards have 
three battalions each, and have no militia or volunteer battalions. The 
King's Royal Rifle Corps has four line battalions, six militia battalions, 
and eleven volunteer battalions; the corps is commanded by Field Mar- 
shal the Duke of Cambridge, as " colonel-in-chief, " and by General the 
honorable Sir A. E. Hardinge as "colonel commandant.'" 

The Rifle Brigade has four line battalions; the Duke of Connaught 
is "colonel in chief," and there are two "colonels commandant." 
The Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders was the only regiment which 
had but one line battalion, but it was increased to two battalions in 
1897, and several two-battalion regiments have since been increased to 
four battalions. 

The new territorial names, although in general official use, have not 
supplanted the old numbers with those who served with the regiments 
under their former designations, and the change of name was Strongly 
opposed by many who felt a pride in the reputation which the regi- 
ments had won when known by their numbers. 

Each battalion, whether line, militia, or volunteer, is commanded by 
a lieutenant-colonel; the command of the regiment is an honorary dis- 
tinction held by a general officer, who as colonel of the regiment has no 
functions. 

Each regimental district is under the command of an officer of the 
rank of colonel, who is called the "officer commanding the regimental 
district." This officer does not command the regiment or any of its 
battalions; his duties embrace the command of the "regimental depot, 
the command, training, and inspection of all the infantry of the auxil- 
iary and reserve forces within the regimental district, the superintend- 
ence of the recruiting, both for line and for the militia battalions of the 
regiment, and charge of the arms and stores at the depot." 

The depots are distinct from the military posts where the line battal- 
ions are stationed. The depots consist of barracks for the line and militia 
recruits, quarters for the officers, and such noncommissioned officers 
and men as may be stationed there, and offices for the dispatch of the 
administrative business of the regiment, including the militia and the 
volunteers. All matters going to a higher authority than the " officer 
commanding the district" pass through his office, which is the " head- 
quarters of the regiment." The line and the militia recruits all conic 
to the regimental depot, soldiers of the line being sent from there to 
their battalions as needed, and the militiamen returning to their homes 
until their first annual training. 

It will have been seen that a "regiment" is a much larger body in 
England than with us; it is an administrative organization consisting 
of two or more battalions, each battalion closely resembling in numbers 
and organization one of our regiments. A battalion is composed of 
from five to twelve companies, and a company has from 60 to 100 rank 
and file; the number of men allowed to each company and the number 
of companies in each battalion is fixed each year \>y the "establish 



21 

merits,' 1 which are a tabulated statement (forming a part of the "esti- 
mates ") of the number of men permitted each organization. 

A full company would number 100, including- the captain, two lieu- 
tenants, called subalterns, one color-sergeant, four other sergeants, 
and live corporals. A battalion of six companies would be commanded 
by a lieutenant-colonel and would have one major; a battalion of eight 
companies would have two majors, and one of twelve companies, two 
lieutenant-colonels and two majors. 

THE CAVALRY. 

The cavalry is not organized territorially, but like our own cavalry 
is recruited entirely independently of the locality. There are 31 regi- 
ments; 3 regiments of household cavalry, 4 of heavy cavalry, 11 of 
medium cavalry (five of which are lancers), and 13 regiments of Hus- 
sars. The strength of a regiment on war footing is 662. 

The artillery is divided into the horse, field, and garrison artillery. 
The tactical artillery unit is the batteiy, but for the purposes of 
administration the corps is divided into brigades, having eight bat- 
teries each. The battery consists of six pieces, told off into three divi- 
sions of two guns each, and into six subdivisions of one gun each. 

For the organization of the garrison artillery, England is divided 
into seven districts, Scotland and Wales each form one, and Ireland 
is divided into two. The brigades of the horse and field artillery are 
recruited from certain specified regimental districts. All the regular 
artillery, including the horse, field, and garrison, is called the " Royal 
Artillery," and the brigades, unlike the- infantry formations, are not 
"'named" but "numbered." 

The Corps of Royal Engineers is organized and recruited without 
regard to locality. It consists of one field park, one pontoon troop, 
one telegraph battalion (in two divisions), four field companies, seven 
depot companies, live submarine mining companies, four survey com- 
panies, and twenty garrison companies, all equipped like the infantry. 

The length of the service with the colors has been determined by 
the fact that the army has to do dut}^ in India. It takes, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, about a 3 r ear to get a recruit ready to send to India, 
and it is general^ arranged that he shall have about a year's service 
at home on his return, so that in seven years' service with the colors 
only about five years' service in India is got from each man. It would 
be unwisely expensive to send soldiers to India for a shorter period 
than this. Were it not for the necessity of Indian service, there is, I 
think, little doubt but that the time of service with the colors would 
be reduced. 

Under ordinary conditions the arm} T is about equally divided between 
home and foreign service, one battalion of each regiment remaining at 
home, receiving and training the recruits, and sending to the foreign 
battalion the drafts necessary each } T ear to fill the places of the men 
who are invalided or whose term of enlistment has expired. 

ARMY SERVICE CORPS. 

The work which is done by our Quartermaster and Commissary 
departments is in the English service performed by the army service 
corps, whose duties may be comprehensively described as supplying 
the aimy with the needs of its daily life. 



22 

Previous to 1870 the commissariat department, which was originally 
a civil branch, was responsible for the provision, custody, and issue 
of food, forage, and all consumable supplies, and the military train, 
which was formed from the land transport corps raised during the 
Crimean war, was charged with the transport duties. Prior to the 
Crimean war there existed no organized military service for either of 
these branches. 

The members of this corps are trained at Aldershot and Woolwich, 
where recruits are sent, and receive their instruction in drilling, mus- 
ketry, riding, driving, both pairs and four-in-hands, stable manage- 
ment, and care of horses. At Aldershot, classes for field bakery and 
butchery are maintained throughout the year. 

The clerks in this corps are trained in turn in the different offices, 
so that they are familiar with the work in all the branches of the 
service. 

Officers in this corps receive special instruction and are required to 
pass a technical examination based on their instruction and experience 
before they are promoted. 

The corps is classed as combatant and its officers are, with certain 
limitations, regarded as regimental officers available for the roster of 
ordinary garrison duties, and exercising such command as their 
seniority may involve. 

The administration of the corps is vested in the quartermaster- 
general, under whose orders the assistant quartermaster-general, army 
service corps, exercises the functions of a commanding officer at the 
headquarters of the corps, which are established at the war office. 

This corps is inspected twice each year — 

(a) By an officer deputed by a quarter master-general, usually the assistant quarter- 
master-general, army, service corps, who is generally concerned with the personnel, 
horses, and equipment, and the uniform observances of the standing orders. 

(b) By a senior officer of the corps selected by the quartermaster-general, with 
chief regard to the system of transport, supply, and barrack services, detailed in the 
regulations for army service corps duties. 

The report of each inspection is submitted to the general officer commanding, who 
forwards it with his remarks to headquarters. 

In addition to these inspections, staff officers from time to time 
inspect the working of the different offices. 

THE MILITIA. 

The militia is a force whose beginnings go far back to the earliest 
periods of English history, although the word " militia" did not come 
into use until the reign of Charles I, and the force was not put upon 
its present constitutional basis until after the Restoration. As in 
America, the theory upon which service in the militia rests is that 
every man must, when needed, render military service to protect the 
State. 

The earliest account which history gives of our Anglo-Saxon fore- 
fathers tells us that it was the right of every freeman to bear arms. 
"For the fatherland of the English race,' 1 as Green says, "we must 
look far away from England itself." In the peninsula which parts the 
Baltic from the Northern Sea, and about the district which is now 
called Sleswick, lived a sturdy race, the basis of whose society was the 
freeman. Two phrases set his freedom vividly before us— he was " the 
free-necked man,' 1 whose long hair floated over a neck that had never 



23 

bent to a lord; he was the " weaponed man,' 1 who alone bore spear and 
sword. 

It was not only the duty of the freeman to bear arms, but it was his 
privilege, and this privilege has always been so jealously guarded 
that in our Constitution we find the provision that "a well-regulated 
militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the 
people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." When the 
Angles and Saxons came to what is now called England, they brought 
with them the custom which has made every freeman a member of 
the force which was to defend his home whenever threatened with 
attack. 

This theory of obligation to the State for military service on the part 
of the freeman, whenever such service was needed, has at different 
times and in different ways been embodied in laws from the days of 
Alfred until the adoption of the military code of the State of New York 
in 1898. 

In speaking of Alfred, Green says: 

What really lifts him to the level of the world's greatest men is the moral grandeur 
of his life. He lived solely for the good of his people; he is the first instance in the 
history of Christendom of a ruler who put aside every personal aim or ambition to 
devote himself wholly to the welfare of those whom he ruled. In his mouth "to live 
worthily" meant a life of justice, temperance, self-sacrifice. He set aside at 30 
the dream of conquest, to leave behind him the memory, not of victories, but of good 
works and daily toils, by which he secured peace, good government, and education 
for his people. His policy was one of peace. 

To those who, in our day, like Alfred, love peace it will be of inter- 
est to recall that, in order to protect his people from invasion or 
attack, he provided for the better organization of the military service. 
He foreshadowed that important feature of modern military organ- 
ization, the localization of the forces, b} 7 dividing his country into mil- 
itary districts, and he maintained the duty which heretofore had rested 
upon every freeman of joining the host, or fyrd, which was divided 
into two halves, each of which took by turn its service in the field, 
while the other half guarded its own burghs and townships. 

The wisdom of his action was shown when the next onset of pirates 
from Gaul fell on the land. His complete victory, after a short war, 
proved the practical wisdom of his course, and the benefits which 
resulted to the people over whom he ruled proved thus early in the 
history of the nation that the ruler is indeed humane who so prepares 
his people for an emergency that they can resist the attack of foreign 
aggression. 

The Statute of Winchester, the greatest of Edward I's measures for 
the enforcement of public order, "revived and reorganized the old 
institutions of national policy and national defense." Every freeman 
between the ages of 15 and (30 was to be available to preserve the peace 
within his own county, or shire, which he was not called upon to leave 
"save upon the coming of strange enemies into the realm. 11 

This organization of what was really the local militia bears a close 
analog} 7 to the present organization of our militia, whose military 
duties are limited to the States, except when called forth by Congress 
"to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrection, and repel 
invasion." 

During the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth the statutes governing the 
military duty of the subjects of the Crown were consolidated, and the 
"lieutenants of counties were recognized as the legally constituted 



24 

agents through whom, upon threat of invasion, all arrangements for 
the internal defense of the country were to be made."" 

In the reign of Charles I frequent disputes "arose between the 
Government and the Parliament as to the command of the trained 
bands or militia," and it is not at all impossible that the provision in 
our Constitution which reserves to the States the right of appointing 
officers in the militia was due to the memory of these conflicts between 
the people and the King in which the King had attempted to extend 
his authority of selecting the officers of the local forces. 

On the Restoration, one of the earliest acts of the new House of Commons was to 
establish the militia on a constitutional basis. The militia of each county was placed 
under the government and command of a lieutenant, who was commissioned by the 
Crown and vested with the appointment of all officers, the Crown reserving the 
right to commission or displace them; the force was distinctly local. Statutes declared 
what pay the soldier was to receive and how he was to be armed; for the purposes 
of punishment, he was to be dealt with by the civil authorities. All "trained bands," 
except those of the city of London, and their auxiliaries, were discontinued. 

It may be noted that these continued as trained bands until 1794, 
when they were hy act of Parliament reorganized as the London 
militia. 

The militia thus established on a firm footing in the reign of Charles II enjoyed 
the confidence of Parliament and the public far more than did the standing army, 
also established in the same reign. Yet it often was jealously watched, and after 
the revolution in 16S8 an act was passed, in the second year of William and Mary, for 
"raising the militia for one year," and for some time this act became an annual one. 

The militia was called out in 1690 on the occasion of the French 
invasion, and again during the rebellions in favor of the Old and Young 
Pretenders in 1715 and 1715. 

In 1757 the militia was reorganized, the numbers required were 
fixed, and obligatory service by ballot or lot was introduced. The 
period of service was for three years, the limits of age being fixed at 
18 to 50 years, and certain exemptions and substitutes were allowed. 
During the Peninsular war, when, as at the present time, there was the 
necessity for sending a large number of regular troops abroad, the 
militia garrisoned the United Kingdom, and thus the regular troops 
were released for service be} 7 ond the seas. 

In 1813 an act was passed to enable the militia to serve abroad as 
militia, and under this act three strong militia battalions joined the 
Duke of Wellington's army in France. 

Lord Castlereagh, as secretary of state for foreign affairs, speaking 
in the House of Commons on the 11th of November, 1813, stated that 
during the eight preceding years the militia had furnished 100,000 
men to the army (or two-fifths of the total number of men rawed for 
the army), and, after paying a high tribute to the force, added: Wk Par- 
liament ought always, therefore, to bear in recollection that it is to the 
militia we owe the character we at present enjoy in military Europe, 
and that without the militia we could not have shown that face which 
we have done in the Peninsula." 

I have referred to the entire lack of interest in all questions of mili- 
tary organization in the period which followed the Peninsular war 
and prior to the beginning of the Crimean war. During this time 
both the local militia and the volunteer force, together with the general 
militia, fell into disuse. The local militia has not been raised since 
1815, but though the law for ballot and enrollment of local militia has 
never been repealed, it has by an annual vote been suspended since 1815. 



25 

Between 1815 and 1852 nothing was done toward keeping up the 
general militia beyond maintaining an effete permanent staff. 

In 1852 the regular militia in England was reorganized, and since 
then it has been encouraged and developed until it is now a very impor- 
tant part of the English armed forces. 

Its theory is conscription, but enlistment in it is entirely by volun- 
tary engagement, the ballot, or what we call draft, being suspended 
annually. 

The militia is governed by the militia regulations, which are approved 
by the ro} 7 al warrant. 

These are revised from time to time, and contain all the regulations 
concerning the organization — discipline, pay, equipment, clothing, bar- 
racks, and so forth — of the force. 

The militia in the United Kingdom is divided into infantry, artillery, 
engineers, and medical staff corps; under the territorial system, the 
several arms of the service are affiliated to the corresponding branches 
of the regular army. 

Until the year 187(3 the administrative work of the militia force was 
conducted by special officers, but since that date it has been adminis- 
tered by the same staff as the regular army. A staff officer of high 
rank, called the deputy adjutant-general for the militia, yeomanry, and 
volunteers, watches over the interests of the force. 

There is no militia cavalry. The training of the militia battalions is 
now carried out under one of four systems, and lasts from twenty-one 
to twenty-eight da} 7 s. 

(1) Under canvas at the headquarters of regimental districts or in 
training barracks. 

(2) In camp at some locality selected with regard to the convenience 
and wishes of the officers and men, where it camps usually without any 
other military forces. 

(3) In camp or in vacant huts or barracks at some station with other 
militia battalions or with regular troops, or with both. 

(4) In camp or huts with the other units of the militia brigade to 
which the unit is detailed for home defense. 

This last method was first introduced in 1892, and is generally con- 
sidered an excellent plan. 

The militia artillery is sent from time to time to the fortresses to 
which it is told off for defense, and is there taught its proper duties. 

The militia medical staff corps is trained at the Army Medical Staff 
Corps Depot at Aldershot. 

The regulations for the militia provide that " the command of the 
militia will in all cases be so exercised that the respective units shall 
be led by their own officers, and that the officers appointed to inspect 
them or to command them in brigade shall not be junior in rank to 
any officer of the force so commanded or inspected." 

The inspection of militia artillery and of the infantry battalion is 
annually made by the officer commanding the militia and volunteer 
artillery of the district, and by the colonel commanding the regimental 
district, respectively. 

APPOINTMENT TO COMMISSIONS. 

The lord lieutenant of a county recommends for the consideration 
of the secretary of state for submission to the Queen the names of 



26 • 

candidates for first appointments as lieutenants, or, as they are called 
in the English service, subalterns. Candidates must not be less than 
17 years of age and not under 5 feet 4 inches in height and 33 inches 
chest measurement. 

The commanding officers arc expected to render the lord lieutenant 
any assistance he may require in the selection of candidates. 

If the lord lieutenant fails to recommend the name of a candidate 
within thirty days after date of letter notifying him of the vacancy, 
his right to recommend lapses, and the commanding officer then rec- 
ommends a candidate to iill the vacancy. 

A militia officer may compete for a cadetship at the ro} T al military 
college or the royal military academy, and if successful, is required to 
resign his commission in the militia. 

The subjects upon which candidates for commissions are to be exam- 
ined are set forth in the Regulations, and a copy will be included in 
the appendix to this report. 

Captains and field officers who have served in the regular forces are 
eligible to commissions in the militia. 

Formerly each unit of militia had its medical officer; no further 
appointments of this kind are now made, all medical officers being 
commissioned in the militia medical staff corps, and being detailed 
from this corps to duty where required. 

Every militia battalion has a permanent staff detailed from the army, 
consisting of an adjutant — generally an army captain — 1 quarter- 
master, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 1 sergeant instructor of musketry, 
and for each company 1 quartermaster, 1 sergeant instructor of mus- 
ketry, 1 color sergeant, 1 sergeant, and 1 drummer, in addition to 
which there is 1 sergeant-major for the battalion, who is a militia 
noncommissioned officer. 

The method of recruiting and the requirements for the recruits are 
fully set forth in the Regulations. 

Every militiaman has a number, which is always quoted before his 
name in all documents relating to him. These numbers will be noticed 
in all the lists of casualties sent from the front. 

Company and regimental books, a list of which appears in the ap- 
pendix, are required to be kept and are annually inspected. 

On appointment, an officer, if an artilleiy officer, must, during his 
first year of service, take a two months' course of instruction at the 
school at Woolwich, and he is in addition permitted to spend two addi- 
tional months' service with a line battalion. If in the engineers, he 
must be attached to an engineer school of instruction or to a line bat- 
talion for one month, or he may attend the preliminary drill of the 
recruits of his unit for a period not exceeding five months. If in the 
infantry, he must either be attached to a line battalion or a legi men- 
tal depot, or he may attend an infantry school of instruction, or the 
preliminary school of the recruits of his unit for a period not exceed- 
ing two months. 

An officer on appointment to the medical staff corps must eithei 
attend the preliminary drill of his unit or the training school of the 
medical staff corps for a period not exceeding two months. 

An officer appointed direct to the rank of captain may be attached 
for a period not exceeding two months to a line battalion, a regimental 
depot, or company of garrison artillery, or may attend the prelinu 
nary drill of his unit for instruction, with a view to obtaining the 
necessary certificates before promotion. 



27 

Special classes for the instruction of militia officers are, from time 
to time, organized at the permanent school fortresses or army 
encampments. 

THE MILITIA RESERVE. 

The so-called militia reserve is not in reality a reserve for the mili- 
tia, but is composed of selected militia available for the army in time 
of war. 

The quota of men permitted to enlist in the militia reserve is fixed, 
and it is always possible to keep this quota full. It is as follows: 
Artillery, one-third of the authorized number of gunners; engineers, 
one-fourth of the authorized number of sappers; infantry, one-fourth 
of the authorized number of privates; medical staff corps, one-half of 
the authorized number of privates. 

The age limitation and physical requirements for admission to the 
reserve are set forth in the regulations. 

When a militia unit goes into camp, requisition is made upon the 
chief ordnance officer in the district by the commanding officer of the 
unit, for articles of camp equipment, and intrenching tools, and 
the camp equipment for the hospital use is requisitioned for by the 
medical officer, countersigned by his commanding officer. 

The following articles are supplied to each militiaman who attends, 
and is found medically fit for, preliminary drill or training: 1 pair of 
shoes in kilted battalions, 1 pair of boots in other services, 2 flannel 
shirts in all services, 3 pairs of socks in the militia submarine mining 
corps, 2 pairs of socks in other services, 1 tin of blacking, and tallow 
in all services. 

If the requisite amount of duty has been performed, the man is per- 
mitted to retain these articles, in addition to his pay. 

All correspondence is conducted as laid down in the Army Regula- 
tions, and on requisition to the war office army forms and books are 
supplied to the militia at the public expense. 

14590—03 3 



PART II. 

ENGLAND-Oontinued. 



' THE VOLUNTEERS. 
THE WAR IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



29 



ENGLAND. 

THE VOLUNTEERS. 

The early history of the British Isles tells of many hostile invasions. 
In the first century B. C. Csesar's legions crossed from Gaul, and 
to-day the Roman ruins and the Roman names in England still testify 
to the fact that the conquering invader was there. In the fifth century 
A. D. Hengist and Horsa came at the head of their Saxon and Angle 
followers, and made England the home of the English people. Three 
hundred years later the Danish descendants of the Vikings invaded 
and ruled the country, and in the eleventh century a Norman duke 
crossed the channel and founded the Kingdom which has grown into 
the present Empire. 

At the end of the last century and in the early part of the present 
one, when the continent of Europe was one vast battle field, invasion 
was a possibility, to prevent or resist which many Englishmen who, 
though willing to fight, did not wish to join the army, organized them- 
selves into military companies. 

The first companies were raised in 1778, but ''the first definite sys- 
tem on which they were maintained was the act of 1794. In 1798 the 
force amounted to 410,000. After the danger of invasion in 1803 
passed away the force ceased to exist." 

It was not, however, until 1859, when the bitterly hostile feeling of 
the French made invasion seem not only " imminent, but inevitable," 
that the volunteers, as the force is known to-day, may be said to have 
come into existence. In order to repulse the army which France 
seemed determined to send across the channel, 150,000 Englishmen 
were soon enrolled, and although the expected invasion was not 
attempted, the force continued to exist, and has steadily increased in 
numbers as well as efficiency, until it now contains about a quarter of 
a million men who are sufficiently trained in the simple duties of a 
soldier to do valuable and effective work should any foreign power 
attempt to invade England. 

The volunteer force is composed of the following arms: Light 
horse, artillery, engineers (including submarine, mining, electrical, 
fortress, and railway corps), rifles, and medical staff corps. 

The organization, command, duties, discipline, finance, uniforms, 
reports, returns, correspondence, forms, and books of the volunteer 
force are all fully set forth in the Regulations for the Volunteer 
Force, which are issued annually. 

Although the different military units of Great Britain have been 
organized as parts of one great system, and all recognize one supreme 
authority, yet the duties and responsibilities of each branch of the 
service are clearly defined by law. The volunteers came into existence 
simply to repel invasion, and they have never had the extent of their 
responsibilities enlarged. The regulation expressly declares that they 

31 



32 

can only be called out for "actual military service" in case of "actual 
or apprehended invasion of any part of the United Kingdom.' 1 In 
case of riots and civil or domestic disturbances the responsibilities and 
duties of the volunteers are merely those of all other citizens. 

The highest military authority in England is the war office. The 
secretary of state for war, a cabinet minister, is the head of this office. 
He corresponds to our Secretary of War, and bears much the same 
relation to the arm} 7 and its commander in chief that our Secretary of 
War does to our Army and its Lieutenant-General. 

All soldiers, including the volunteers, are subject to the authority 
of the War Office, and by a provision of the Regulations for the Vol- 
unteer Force — 

All volunteers, when assembled for drill inspection, or voluntarily doing any other 
military duty, are under the command of the officer commanding in chief, and of 
the general officers of the regular forces commanding in the districts within which 
such volunteers are undergoing inspection or doing military duty, and the officer 
commanding the regimental depot of the subdistrict is invested with the command 
of the whole of the rifle volunteers in his district. 

What the volunteers can be ordered to do is of course limited by the 
laws under which they are organized, but in the discharge of their 
military duties the} 7 are subject to the orders and directions of army 
officers in all matters requiring a higher authority than that of the 
volunteer officer commanding the battalion. 

The men who joined the force in 1859 armed and equipped themselves 
without any Government aid, and were, almost without exception, men 
of some wealth, but with the development of the force its composition 
has become more democratic. The men now in the volunteer bat- 
talions, like those in our militia, come from all ranks and walks of life. 
There are some battalions, such as the Inns of Court, composed almost 
exclusively of barristers; the Oxford and Cambridge University, com- 
posed exclusively of men in the universities, and the Artists, composed 
of artists and professional men, which have a distinctive individuality, 
and are composed of men who have a recognized position; but these 
are exceptions rather than the rule. 

The volunteers are now organizing under the volunteer act of 1863, 
and are subject to all regulations made by " Her Majesty's principal 
secretary of state for war." 

A new corps may be formed on the approval of the Queen, and on 
complying with the requirements set forth in the regulations. 

VOLUNTEER ENGINEERS. 

In England, officers of all arms of the service have, in the past, been 
of the opinion that it was not possible for the volunteers to become 
efficient as field artillery; on the other hand, seacoast artillery and 
engineering work of great importance has been confidently intrusted 
to them. This, it will be noticed, differs from the view which is held 
in our country on these questions. Many have believed that it was 
possible for our State forces to become efficient as field artillery; but 
there has been at times serious opposition to giving them any respon- 
sible work in connection with our seacoast artillery, and no one has 
ever suggested that submarine mining work should be intrusted to 
them. 

In England there are twenty different units organized in the volun- 
teers for work as engineers, and they are called " lioyal Engineers 



33 



(volunteers)." These different units, called "corps," are under the 
command of the royal engineer officer of the district in which they 
are located. Of the twenty corps, two consist of one company each, 
one of four companies, seven of six companies, three of seven com- 
panies, three of eight companies, one of nine companies, two of ten 
companies, and one of twelve companies. The maximum strength of 
a company is 100. 

The following facts in regard to one of the battalions or corps will 
rve to indicate the conditions .under which some of the volunteer 



sei 



organizations exist, and also the character of the work done by this 
arm of the volunteer service. 

The Lanarkshire Royal Engineers (volunteers), has its headquarters 
in Glasgow. Its honorary colonel is Maj. Gen. Lord Kitchener, of 
Khartoum, who is an engineer officer. The officer commanding the 
battalion is Lieut. Col. Duncan Campbell, who has the volunteer 
officers' decoration given after twenty years' service, and who has 
passed all the examinations provided for. 

The battalion has a comfortable although not large building, in 
which are the headquarters offices, and the mess rooms for the officers, 
and two canteens, one for the noncommissioned officers, and one for 
the enlisted men. The building and lot cost approximately £9,000; 
£5,000 was borrowed on the land from the public works loan com- 
missioners at 3£ per cent; one thirty-fifth of the principal being paya- 
ble each year; the amount of the interest charge which is payable on 
the unpaid balance decreases annually. Four thousand pounds was 
borrowed from a private source at 4£ per cent, on the building, on an 
ordinary bond and mortgage. Under the law governing such cases, 
the property will belong to the Government when the entire amount 
borrowed has been repaid with interest. 

Adjoining the building is an open plot of land about 200 by 300 feet, 
extending to the River Kelvin. On this ground the men are trained 
in digging intrenchments and making field fortifications. The river 
is used for practical work in bridge building. Officers and men are 
trained to construct floating bridges, spar bridges, trestle bridges, and 
suspension bridges. This work is not required by the regulations, 
but the location of the regiment's property and the energy of the 
officers has led to this extension of the practical work of the command. 
Following is a list of the work done by this corps in the year 1900: 



Com- 
pany. 


Full-size work. 


Model work. 


Officers' work. 


A 






Defense of village. 


B. 

c 


Obstacles, camping expedients: 
land mines. 


Siege French casemate 

• 
Defense of village and house. 


Defense of position. 
Defense of position. 


D 


do 


Defense of village. 




Barrel-pier bridge and sheer legs .. 




Repair of railway bridge. 


F 




Bridge over canal 


Q 






Bridge over railway. 


H 


Single-sling bridge, and derrick ... 




Do 


I. 


(«) 


Defense of village. 



a This company, being away from headquarters, has no completed work to show, but is exercised in 
barrel pienng, lashing spars, digging trenches, etc. 
Recruits Full size. Sheer legs (2 pairs) ; Indian-file bridge, hutling and straw mats. 

Formerly the corps consisted of nine companies, but it is now per- 
manently increased to twelve. One company made up of volunteers 
from this reoiment went to South Africa, and became the Ninth com- 



34 

pany of the Royal Engineers, forming- part of the army there. The 
volunteer officer who went with the company received th# temporary 
rank of lieutenant R. E. ; the men were enlisted for one year or the war. 

RAILWAY ENGINEERS. 

One of the Volunteer Engineer Corps is organized for railway work. 
The corps is commanded by Colonel Cotton-Jodrell, formerly an officer 
of the Royal Artillery, and now a member of Parliament, and the 
major of the battalion is Colonel Kennedy, who was also at one time 
in the Royal Artillery. This corps is made up of employees of the 
London and Northwestern Railway Company, and the otrieers, with 
the exception of the two already mentioned, are heads of departments, 
engineers, etc., in the employ of the railway company. It will, of 
course, be seen at a glance what an exceedingly valuable corps this is 
for the purpose of railroad work, including not only the running of 
trains, the handling of traffic, but the construction of the roadbed, the 
building of bridges, and all the other many important lines of work 
connected with the management of a railroad. In addition to this, the 
men are given instruction in building earthworks, fortifications, tying 
of knots and use of cordage, as well as a certain amount of infantry 
drill and the use of their rifles at the range. 

There is in addition to this railway corps a body called the Engi- 
neers and Railway Volunteer Staff Corps, composed of some 40 officers 
of the rank of major or higher, and 20 captains and 40 lieutenants, 
who are almost all experienced railroad men, actually connected with 
the management of the greatest railways in England. If at any time 
it were necessary to use for military purposes the railways of Great 
Britain it would be of the greatest value to the country to have such 
a body of staff officers upon whom the country could call, and who 
could bring to the management of the railways for military purposes 
the experience, skill, and training which is given to their management 
in time of peace. 

In Switzerland and in all other countries where the welfare of the 
soldier is considered in the peace preparations for war the utmost 
importance is attached to avoiding all unnecessary delay and conse- 
quent fatigue in the transportation of soldiers. This is not because 
the soldier complains, but because, in addition to other reasons, his 
physical and nervous strength must, in the interests of the country, 
be protected against unnecessary strain and tax. 

SUBMARINE MINERS. 

There are seven units of volunteer submarine miners located at the 
Tyne, the Severn, the Clyde, the Tees, the Tay, the Forth, and the 
Mersey. A brief description of the Clyde division will give an idea 
of the responsibilities which are intrusted to this portion of the 
volunteer forces. 

The Clyde division numbers something over 200 officers and men, 
and is under the command of a volunter officer, Major Neill. Under 
him is a submarine mining officer and about 70 noncommissioned offi- 
cers and enlisted men of the submarine miners in the regular service; 
the balance of the command is made up entirely of volunteers. All the 
submarine mines for the defense of the River Clyde, with its enormous 



85 

shipbuilding and shipping interests, is intrusted to this force, which 
is believed to be entirely competent to perform the responsible work 
intrusted to it. 

VOLUNTEER BRIGADES. 

The infantry battalions of the volunteers are organized as brigades, 
consisting of from three to ten battalions each. 

In some cases the brigades are commanded by volunteer officers of 
long service, and in other cases the army officer commanding the regi- 
mental district is brigade commander. Neither plan seems to give 
entire satisfaction. The volunteer officer who is in command of a 
volunteer brigade has no authority over it except during the short 
period when his brigade is out as a brigade; at all other times the 
officer commanding the regimental district in which the volunteer bat- 
talions are located is the channel through which they communicate with 
higher authority, and, while not himself in command of the brigade, 
practically does the routine and office work, which would ordinarily be 
done in brigade headquarters. On the other hand, when the colonel 
commanding the district is also the brigade commander, the duties 
which devolve upon him at the time when his brigade is out must of 
necessity interfere with his performance of the duties devolving upon 
him as commanding officer of a regimental district. 

In case of anything like a serious emergency, it is more than prob- 
able that there would be absolute necessity for a brigade commander, 
and also for a commanding officer of the regimental district. It is the 
conviction of many officers that there should be a permanent brigade 
commander with staff for each brigade of volunteers. The reason this 
method which, theoretically and practically, seems to be the best, was 
not adopted, was owing to the extra expense which would be entailed 
by the pay of these brigade commanders and their staff officers. 

An officer commanding a volunteer brigade is assisted by a staff, 
consisting of one brigade major, one aid-de-camp, one staff officer for 
administrative supply and transport duties, one senior medical officer, 
known as a brigade surgeon, lieutenant-colonel. 

Following are the provisions of law in regard to the command of 
volunteer brigades, and also in regard to the supply detachments and 
bearer companies which are authorized for each brigade: 

In the ease of actual mobilization for service, or whenever the various battalions 
of a brigade are assembled as a brigade, they will be under the command of the 
officer commanding the brigade. At all other times the dispositions as regards 
inspection, discipline, and other administrative work will be carried on by officers 
commanding battalions, through officers commanding regimental districts, and the 
general officer commanding the district. 

It is desirable, however, that the latter should consult the officer commanding the 
brigade on all matters of importance affecting the battalions of this brigade generally. 

For the performance of executive supply duties, a supply detachment will be formed 
in each brigade, composed as follows: One captain, as supply officer; one noncom- 
missioned officer, as assistant; four noncommissioned officers, as clerks and issuers; 
one noncommissioned officer and three privates, as butchers, and for general pur- 
poses each brigade has a signaling company. 

For each brigade a bearer company is authorized, consisting of one surgeon lieuten- 
ant-colonel, surgeon-major or surgeon-captain; two surgeon-captains, or surgeon- 
lieutenants; seven staff sergeants, or sergeants (the senior to act as warrant officer); 
one bugler; fifty-three rank and file. 

The training of the noncommissioned officers and men will be carried out under 
the supervision of the senior medical officer of the brigade. 



36 

APPOINTMENTS TO COMMISSIONS. 

Appointments to commissions may be made on the recommendation 
of the lord-lieutenant of a county. The name is sent to the secretary 
of state and by him submitted to the Queen. Candidates must not be 
less than 17 years of age. Commanding officers are required to ren- 
der the lord-lieutenant every assistance in their power, if required to 
do so, in the selection of candidates for appointment. If the lord- 
lieutenant fails to submit a name within thirty days after the date of 
the letter notifying him of the vacancy, his power of recommendation 
lapses, and the secretary of state directs the commanding officer to 
make the recommendation. As a matter of fact, appointments are 
now made on the recommendation of the commanding officer. 

If it is desired to make an original appointment to the rank of cap- 
tain or field officer, the name must be submitted to the war office 
through the general officer commanding the district, and the reasons 
for such action must be given. 

PROMOTION IN THE VOLUNTEER FORCES. 

Promotion in the volumteer force is not always according to the regi- 
mental 8}^stem. 

In the interests of particular corps, troops, batteries, or companies, it will be neces- 
sary to promote or appoint officers who are not next in seniority, or who have not 
served in the lower ranks; the discretion of commanding officers must therefore be 
exercised in submitting the names of fit and proper persons. 

Appointments made to the command of volunteer corps will be held for a period 
of four years, and any extension of tenure will be made for terms not exceeding four 
years, but will only be granted on the recommendation of general officers command- 
ing districts, who will submit their recommendations one month before the expiration 
of the tenure. 

A volunteer officer may be appointed as aid-de-camp to the Queen. 

HONORARY COLONELS. 

In addition to the officers commanding the different volunteer corps, 
each battalion may have an honorary colonel, who is generally selected 
for his prominence or his identification with the volunteer force. 
Recommendations for the appointment of honorary colonels to corps 
which are commanded by a lieutenant-colonel are made to the war 
office by commanding officers through the general officer commanding 
the district. 

STAFF OFFICERS OF BRIGADES. 

Brigade commanders are required to submit their recommendations 
of officers for appointments to the brigade stall' through the general 
officer commanding the district. 

Brigade majors are, if possible, selected from among the retired 
officers of the regular forces, but aides-de-camp may be chosen from 
among either retired officers of the regular forces or officers belong- 
ing to the militia, yeomanry, or volunteers. 

The brigade supply and transport officer is, if possible, taken from 
one of the battalions of the brigade. 

The brigade commander must consult the principal medical officer 
of the district before submitting his recommendation for the appoint- 
ment of a senior medical officer. 



37 

INSTRUCTORS OF MUSKETRY. 

The appointment of instructor of musketry must be made from 
among those officers who are in possession of a certificate from the 
school of musketry. 

VETERINARY OFFICERS. 

A veterinary officer is allowed for each corps of volunteer light 
horse, and of artillery. 

In other cases a veterinary officer is only allowed on the special 
authority of the secretary of state. 

Every candidate for appointment must be a member of the Royal 
College of Veterinary Surgeons. 

If duly recommended by their commanding officer, through the gen- 
eral officer commanding the district, veterinary lieutenants will, on 
approval by the secretary of state, be promoted to the rank of veteri- 
nary captains on the completion of fifteen years' service as veterinary 
officers, and veterinary captains to the rank of veterinary majors on 
completion of twenty years' such service. 

CHAPLAIN. 

One acting chaplain will be allowed for each corps, the appointment 
being made on the recommendation of the officer commanding the 
corps to the war office. 

These appointments cease whenever the corps is called out for actual 
service. 

ADJUTANTS. 

The adjutants, as stated above, are always army officers. The 
name of an officer selected as adjutant — 

Will in the first instance be communicated through the general officer command- 
ing the district to the officer commanding the volunteer corps, in order that he may 
be given an opportunity of urging any objection to the appointment, should he wish 
to do so. 

Commanding officers of volunteers will not communicate with commanding or 
other officers of the army with a view to finding suitable candidates. The selection 
of adjutants rests with the commander in chief, who will at all times be prepared to 
give every consideration to any objections which the volunteer commanding officer 
may put forward. 

If an adjutant's service proves undesirable he will at any time be liable to be sent 
back to his regiment. 

As the public services of an adjutant are to be available at all times, an officer 
holding an adjutancy in the volunteer force will not be allowed to follow any other 
profession or to hold any other appointment, public or private. 

EXAMINATION ON APPOINTMENT AND ON PROMOTION. 

Every subaltern, captain, or field officer in the volunteer forces 
when appointed or promoted will be required to pass an examination 
as provided for in the regulations or to attend a school of instruction 
and obtain a certificate of proficiency under the rules governing such 
cases unless he has served: 

(a) In the regular forces and has there passed the necessary exami- 
nation, or 

(h) In a similar arm of the militia, yeomanry, or volunteers and has 
already passed the necessary examination, or 



38 

(c) If the appointment is as captain or subaltern, if he has served as 
a sergeant of the same arm of the volunteer force and obtained a cer- 
tificate. 

An officer who fails to obtain a certificate will be examined again in 
six months, and in the event of a second failure he will be required to 
resign his commission. 

The subjects covered by the examinations in the different arms of 
the service are set forth fully in the regulations and relate to the duties 
which the officer will have to perform. For example a quartermaster 
is required to be examined for a certificate of proficiency in the follow- 
ing subjects: 

(a) The mode of drawing and issuing ammunition, arms, forage, fuel, 
and rations. 

(b) The system of packing and loading baggage, so as to facilitate 
its issue at the end of a march. 

(c) The mode of drawing and issuing camp equipment. 

(d) Making out returns and keeping the books relative to the above. 
In accordance with the regulations act of 1871 — 

The commissions of officers are prepared, authenticated, and issued in the same 
manner as the commissions of officers in Her Majesty's regular forces. 

An officer who does not attend the number of drills prescribed for 
the enrolled volunteers of his corps, to qualify them for certificates of 
efficiency, will not be allowed to retain his commission unless it should 
be represented to the secretary of state that there are special reasons 
for a relaxation of this regulation. 

Volunteers must be natural born or naturalized subjects of the Queen. 

Boys between 12 and 17 years of age may, if the authority of the 
district officer commanding be first obtained, be enrolled as trum- 
peters, buglers, or bandsmen, or for the purpose of being trained as 
such; all others enrolled must be between the ages of 17 and 1!>. 

Every person offering himself for enrollment is required to pass a 
physical examination by the medical officer of the corps. The 
principal points in the examination are sight, hearing, chest capacity, 
and soundness of heart and lungs. 

The volunteers, like members of the other forces, receive a number, 
on enrollment, which is always entered against their names in the 
muster rolls. 

Officers and men who attend the specified number of drills, and are- 
present at the annual inspection, and, in the case of an enlisted man in 
the infantry, have attained a specified proficiency in target practice, 
are termed " efficients" and receive the annual capitation grant, which 
is =£5 for the submarine miners in the engineers, <£! for the electrical 
engineers, and 35s. in all other arms of the service. 

The artillery, which is all garrison artillery, is ordinarily drilled and 
trained in the forts to which the different artillery units are allotted. 

The gun practice of the volunteer artillery is always carried on under 
the superintendence of an officer of the royal artillery, an adjutant of 
the volunteer artillery, or an officer of the volunteer artillery, who 
holds a certificate of proficiency and a certificate of competency to 
superintend gun practice. 

RANGES. 

There has been great difficulty in securing adequate rifle ranges for 
the volunteers, and the question of increasing the facility for target 
practice is being seriously considered at the present time. 



39 

The adjutant of each battalion is responsible for its musketry train- 
ing, and it is his duty to see that it is carried out strictly in accordance 
with the regulations, and he is responsible for the accuracy of the 
registers and returns. 

GYMNASTIC AND FENCING INSTRUCTION. 

Officers and volunteers are permitted under certain conditions to 
receive instruction in gymnastics and fencing in the military gym- 
nasia, provided they obtain the approval of the officer commanding at 
the station. The regular sergeants who give the instruction are paid 
at the rate of Is. a lesson of one hour for each class not exceeding 15. 

ENCAMPMENTS. 

March-outs, or encampments, are in some cases with the regular 
forces, and are allowed once each year. 

SCHOOL OF INSTRUCTION. 

Volunteers are permitted to attend classes for instruction at regular 
military schools of instruction. At the conclusion of the course each 
officer who passes a satisfactory examination is granted a certificate 
and is entitled to have the letters "P. S." placed opposite his name in 
the army list. In the case of those officers who obtain 90 per cent of 
the marks allotted in each subject, both in the practical and written 
tests, the certificate will be marked in red ink with the word "Special." 

In addition to the instruction given at the military schools, where 
each arm has an opportunity of going to the special school for its 
branch of the service, any volunteer officer, except an officer of Light 
Horse, may be temporarily attached — 

(a) To the royal artillery for any period not exceeding three months. 

(b) To a company of the royal engineers, for any period not exceed- 
ing one month. 

(c) To infantry regiments of the regular army, or to a regimental 
district, for any period not exceeding one month. 

(d) To units of militia for the annual training period of twenty- 
eight days. 

While so attached they receive 5s. a day when actually traveling, 
10s. a da} r if submarine miners or electrical engineers, and 8s. a day in 
the other arms of the service. This grant is in lieu of pay. 

At the conclusion of the course of instruction an officer is examined 
by a board, and if found qualified receives a certificate and has the let- 
ter "P." placed against his name in the army list. 

Officers may present themselves for examination in tactics, military 
law, field fortification, military topography, and organization and equip- 
ment. Certificates are granted for successfully passing these exami- 
nations, and any officer who passes in all the subjects in which he may 
be examined within five years is entitled to have the letter "Q." oppo- 
site his name in the army list, if he is a captain or a field officer, and 
the letter "q." if he is a subaltern. 

Officers may also present themselves for examination in Russian, 
Turkish, Arabic, Persian, and German at the same time and under the 
same conditions as officers of the regular army. 

Officers who pass a satisfactory examination in the military school 



40 

of instruction at Woolwich, or who have previously served and quali- 
fied in the royal artillery, will have the letter "A." placed against their 
names in the army list. 

BAND. 

All bandsmen present on parade in volunteer uniform must be 
enrolled volunteers. Bands are not permitted to appear in uniform 
for an} 7 purpose without the consent of the officer commanding the 
corps to which they belong. 

COMMAND. 

"The command of the volunteer forces will in all cases be so exer- 
cised that the volunteers shall be led by their own officers, and that 
officers appointed to inspect or command such force, whether alone or 
joined with the regular forces, shall be senior in rank to every officer 
of the force commanded or inspected." 

DUTIES IN AID OF THE CIVIL POWER. 

The civil authority is not in any case entitled to call upon or order 
volunteers to act as a military body in the preservation of peace. 

All British subjects are bound in the case of riots to use all reason- 
able endeavors, according to the necessity of the occasion, to suppress 
and quell such riots. Members of the volunteer force are not exempted 
from this general obligation, and the} T may, in common with all other 
citizens, be required by the civil authority to act as special constables 
for such purposes, but they must not wear their uniforms when acting 
as constables. 

In riots and disturbances not amounting to insurrection and not hav- 
ing for their object the commission of felonious acts or the subversion 
of the civil government members of the volunteer force, if employed 
as special constables, should be armed with the ordinary constable's 
staff. In cases of serious and dangerous riots and disturbances the 
civil authority may require all citizens, including members of the vol- 
unteer force, to arm themselves with weapons suitable to the occasion. 

In the event of an attack upon their storehouse or armories mem- 
bers of the volunteer force may combine and avail themselves of their 
organization to repel such attack and to defend their storehouses and 
armories, and, if necessary, to use arms. 

DECORATIONS. 

Volunteer officers having twenty years' service may be granted a 
decoration called "A volunteer officer's decoration." 

Medals and decorations given by a foreign sovereign may be worn 
if permission has been granted by the Queen. 

PURCHASE OF LAND. 

Under very carefully guarded conditions volunteer organizations 
may secure permission to purchase land for military purposes, and in 
some cases loans are made by the public works loan commissioners 
for the purpose of making such purchases. 

INSPECTION. 

The inspection is the only compulsory duty which a volunteer has 
to perform; sickness or urgent private business is the only excuse 



41 

permitted. If sickness is the excuse a certificate of the medical officer 
must be offered. If a member of a volunteer force is absent from 
inspection without leave the commanding officer is bound to return him 
" nonefficient," and the corps thus loses the grant which is paid for 
"efficients." The commanding officer can have the member summoned 
in the county court for the purpose of collecting the grant, which the 
volunteer must pay. 

ENLISTMENT. 

The obligation which is incurred by a volunteer when he has enrolled 
in the force is only for home defense and it carries with it no obliga- 
tion to serve abroad. There has never been any effort during this war 
to secure distinct units from the volunteer force for foreign service. 
The method of selecting volunteers to form the companies which have 
gone from many of the volunteer battalions has been largely left to 
the discretion of the commanding officer, who has in every instance 
taken care to enlist only those men whose conditions and circumstances 
were such that they could properly go on foreign service. 

Until the war in South Africa volunteers had not been paid. All 
the Government did was to supply them with rifles, which are the 
same as those issued to the regulars, and to give the corps a capitation 
grant and certain allowances for those men who were "efficient," but 
this money was used by the corps and did not go to the individual 
members. The course followed by the Government in regard to pay- 
ing the volunteers who were on duty in England during the South 
African war will be explained later. 

Officers and men have to be uniformed and equipped in accordance 
with the regulations, and the capitation grant and allowances are used 
by the different organizations to meet this and other necessary expenses. 

Each battalion has a finance committee, which expends all the money 
received from the Government in the form of capitation grants, and 
which renders annually an account of the transactions to the account- 
ant-general of the army, by whom these accounts are very carefully 
scrutinized. 

EMERGENCY PLAN OF 1900. 

The plan ordinarily followed for the training in camp of the volun- 
teers has been described above. In the year 1900, partly owing to the 
absence of so many regular troops in South Africa, an emergency plan 
was adopted under which, arrangements were made for the training 
in camp of the volunteers for a period of from fourteen days to 
one month. It will be borne in mind that under the existing law vol- 
unteers can not be ordered out except in case of actual or apprehended 
invasion, and as there was no apprehension of such an event, it was 
necessary to leave the question of whether or not they would go into 
camp entirely with the volunteers. It was decided that when 50 per 
cent of any volunteer corps came into camp for a period of fourteen 
days that an allowance of two guineas per man should be paid to the 
corps. The instructions issued by the war office for the training of 
the volunteers and of the militia are given in the appendix. 

ORGANIZATION OF FORGES FOR THE PRESENT WAR. 

On the outbreak of the war the British land forces consisted of (1) 
the army and the army reserve, (2) the militia and the so-called militia 



42 

reserve, in reality a reserve for the army, (3) the volunteers, and (1) 
the yeomanry. 

The army and its reserve and the militia reserve when called out to 
join the army battalions were available for service in any part of the 
world. The militia and the yeomanry and the volunteers were, by the 
terms of their enlistment and the law governing their existence, only 
available for home defense. 

ARMY RESERVE. 

The general character of the army reserve, and of the militia reserve 
has been described above. It will be noted that Section A of the army 
reserve, which is a small portion numbering in January, 1899, 1,360, 
was available for service outside the United Kingdon whenever war- 
like operations are in preparation or in progress; the power of calling 
them out is exercised by royal proclamation. The exercise of this 
power must be reported to Parliament, as soon as may be, but there 
is no necessity of calling Parliament together for the purpose of sanc- 
tioning such action. The remaining sections of the army reserve are 
only to be called out in case of ""imminent national danger, or of 
great emergency." The Queen is privately advised b} r her ministers 
that such a condition exists, thereupon issues a proclamation ordering 
the army reserves to be called out, and ordering the secretary of state 
for war to give the necessary directions from time to time. 

The secretary of state is not compelled to call out the whole reserve 
at once, but in virtue of the proclamation he can call out any portion 
of it as occasion may demand. At the same time Parliament, if not 
sitting, must be summoned to meet within ten days. 

Section D of the army reserve, which has been described above, can 
not be called out until the whole of Sections A, B, and C have been 
called out. It is in contemplation, however, to abolish this rule, which 
has been found inconvenient. 

The reason for abolishing this rule is as follows: 

The reservists should preferably be sent to their old regiments; but 
it may happen that the reservists of Sections A, B, and C of a particu- 
lar regiment will all be called up before the reservists of other regi- 
ments in these sections. Under the present regulations it then becomes 
necessary to call up all the remaining reservists of A, B, and C who 
are not at the time wanted, in order to get the reservists of Section D 
of the particular regiment for which the} 7 are needed. 

THE MILITIA RESERVE. 

The procedure for calling up the militia reserve is similar to that in 
the case of Sections B, C, and D of the arnry reserve. It may, how 
ever, be called up independently or concurrently with any of these 
sections. 

PROCEDURE IN THE CASE OF THE PRESENT WAR. 

At a date not made public Her Majesty's Government advised her 
that a case of great emergency had arisen; accordingly on October 7, 
1899, she issued two proclamations, one summoning Parliament to 
meet on October 17 and the other ordering the army reserve to be 
called out, and directing Lord Lansdowne to take the necessary steps 
for calling out all or anj' of the men belonging thereto. 



43 

Copies of the proclamations issued by the Queon calling out the army 
reserve, summoning Parliament, and also a copy of the proclamation 
by which men who would otherwise be entitled to be transferred to the 
reserve were continued in service with the colors are in the appendix. 

The force which was originally thought adequate for the South 
African expedition consisted of one army corps and two cavalry bri- 
gades, with seven battalions for the lines of communication, altogether 
ubout -±7,500 men. It was fixed at this comparatively low figure 
because the garrison of South Africa had already been raised to a total 
of about 25,000 men, and in addition it was intended to form local 
corps to a considerable extent. 

On October 26 Her Majesty took a further step of ordering the 
embodiment of the militia and the calling out of the militia reserve, 
which was done by a proclamation in accordance with the requirements 
of the law. 

Copies of the two proclamations will be given in the appendix. 

The soldiers of the militia reserve were not called up en masse, but 
individually, as required to complete the strength of the regular bat- 
talions ordered for foreign service. 

In all about 8,000 out of 30,000 were posted, or, as we should say, 
sent to their regular battalions, and the remainder were left to take 
their places in the embodied militia battalions. 

The whole of the reservists necessary for the original field force 
were called up on October 7, and ordered to report themselves by 
October 17; three days later, October 20, the first unit sailed for 
South Africa. From that date sailings were continued; indeed, the 
whole force might have embarked on October 20 had there been 
enough transports to take them. 

The following table gives the particulars as to all the reservists 
called out between October, 1899, and March, 1900. 

PERCENTAGES OF RESERVISTS CALLED OUT. 

Reported — 

Fit 89.54 

Unfit 8.37 

Total 97.91 

Absent — : 

With leave 0.15 

Without leave 1.94 

Total 2.09 

FOREIGN SERVICE OF MILITIA BATTALIONS/' 

The militia being organized for home defense, and there being no 
provision in law for ordering any member of the force to do duty 
beyond seas, it was necessary to secure the members of this force by 
a voluntary enlistment. When it was recognized that the original 
expeditionary force was not sufficient, it was decided to give certain 
militia battalions the opportunity of volunteering. These battalions 
were selected by the war office, and the officers and men were asked 
through their commanding officers if they would volunteer for service 
abroad. Each officer and each man was asked this question individ- 

« See militia act of 1882, Part III, section 12, and reserve forces and militia act of 
1898. 

11590—03 1 



44 

ually. No member of the force can be compelled to volunteer and no 
person who does not volunteer can be taken abroad. 

Among the battalions thus selected by the war office there was one 
Scotch battalion recruited almost wholly from fishermen, who were 
unable to leave their vocation without exposing their families to the 
risk of privation. In this and in one other battalion only about 40 
per cent of the men volunteered. 

The services of these battalions were, therefore, not accepted; in all 
the other cases practically all the officers and men volunteered. The lew 
who did not were left behind when the battalion sailed. The militia 
battalions were not called upon to volunteer at the same time, but at 
successive dates as the} 7 were required. Fourteen days from the date 
of volunteering was reckoned to be sufficient to prepare for active serv- 
ice, and this estimate proved to be correct. 

The total militia force thus organized for foreign service numbered 
19,463, made up as follows: Infantry, 18,761; artillery, 650; engi- 
neers, 52. One rather curious feature of the militia organization was 
the fact that under the militia act of 1882, Part III, as amended by 
the reserve forces and militia act of 1898, no reenlistment is necessary 
for foreign service. The original enlistment contemplates the possi- 
bility of foreign service, and when the officer or enlisted man volun- 
teers and enters upon foreign service he bears exactly the same refer- 
ence to the Government as he occupies each year during the annual 
training at home, a position identical with that of the regular army. 

VOLUNTEERS AND YEOMANRY." 

Neither the volunteers or the yeomanry were called out. The vol- 
unteers can not be called out unless an invasion of the United King- 
dom is apprehended. The } T eomaniT may be called out whenever an 
order for the embodiment of the militia is in force, but this power 
was not exercised during the Boer war. Both forces are intended for 
defensive purposes only. 

Although the volunteers, as such, were not sent to South Africa, it 
was decided that a company of volunteers might be furnished for each 
regular battalion in South Africa from the volunteer battalions affiliated 
to it. 

These companies were selected from the fittest among those individ- 
ual volunteers who offered themselves for foreign service at the invita- 
tion of the commanding officers of the various battalions. The result 
of this plan was that every infantry battalion in South Africa to which 
volunteer battalions are affiliated (i. e. , all but the guards and Irish regi- 
ments) had attached to it a company of volunteers. 

A special arrangement was, however, made in the case of the Lon- 
don Volunteer Battalion by which they were allowed to furnish a com- 
plete unit, the City Imperial Volunteers, 1,573 strong. 

These men were all specially enlisted for twelve months, or the 
period of the war, and the officers given temporar} r commissions. This 
was necessary because volunteers do not engage to serve abroad, and 
the officers' commissions are not valid out of the United Kingdom. 
The officers and men of these service companies were placed, for the 
time being, in exactly the same position as regular soldiers. 

The yeomanry were differently dealt with. Owing to the nature of 

«See volunteer act of 1863; the national defense act of 1888. 



45 

the war in South Africa, it was considered advisable to send out a 
much larger force of mounted men than was originally contemplated. 
It was therefore determined to use the existing force of yeomanry 
as a basis, turning them from cavalry into mounted infantry, and giv- 
ing an opportunity not only to members of the existing yeomanry 
organizations, but also to volunteers and civilians, who satisfied the 
requirements of the service demanded of them, to enlist in the corps 
of imperial yeomanry. 

The existing regiments of yeomanry became recruiting and training 
depots for companies of the new corps, each 116 men strong. The 
companies thus formed were then organized into regiments of four 
companies, and these regiments were brigaded in South Africa. 

Full details of the raising, organization, and equipment of the corps 
are given in the army order on the subject." The men were specially 
enlisted for twelve months, or the period of the war, and the officers 
temporarily commissioned; all ranks thus being placed, as in the case 
of the volunteers, on the same footing as the regular army. 

INDEPENDENT CORPS. 

It is, of course, an axiom that a force other than the regular army 
which does duty beyond seas must volunteer for this service; and when 
England found that its needs in South Africa would exceed the number 
of men who could be taken from the regular army, the organization of 
new units became a necessity. 

New forces were therefore organized, and with the approval of the 
Government the work of getting the men ready to take the field was 
intrusted to the efforts of committees of citizens. 

The City Imperial Volunteers was a force raised in the city of Lon- 
don, Sir Alfred J. Newton, the lord mayor, taking an active and effi- 
cient part in raising the funds and equipping the men. The reports 
of the various committees have been published, and give in brief a 
most interesting account of the way in which this work was done. 

Experienced and competent officers and civilians were placed on the 
different committees; the men were taken largel} T from existing volun- 
teer organizations, and a picked force of 1,585 officers and men was 
speedily enrolled and equipped. The first conversation which the lord 
mayor had with the commander in chief in regard to the organization 
of the corps was on the 15th of December, 1899, and the actual work 
of organizing the regiment began on the 20th of December. The 
report of Colonel Boxall says: 

The regiment was born on the 20th of December, 1899, by Lord Wolseley's letter 
of that date, and christened on the 6th of January, 1900, by the royal warrant, but 
yet the mounted infantry under Colonel Cholmondeley were engaged in a successful 
right at Jacobsdal on February 16, 7,000 miles away. 

A copy of the report telling in detail how this work was carried out 
is annexed hereto. 

The imperial yeomanry was a force raised by the efforts of a com- 
mittee formed for the purpose of organizing and equipping a mounted 
force. The members of this force did not come exclusively from the 
existing yeomanry, but any man who gave promise of making a good 
soldier was taken. 

« See appendix. 



4fi 

Besides these, two independent corps were raised quite unconnected 
with the imperial yeomanry, Lord Loch's South African«Corps and 
Lovat's Scouts. 

Lord Loch's corps was composed of men with colonial experience, 
got together in England with the approval of the war office and sent 
out to the Cape to be enrolled there in connection with one of the 
South African corps of irregular horse. It was, in fact, a colonial 
corps, recruited in England under colonial conditions and with the 
equipment of which the war office at home was not directly concerned. 

" Lo vat's Scouts " were a corps of Scotch gillies, raised and equipped 
by Lord Lovat under the supervision of the war office. They formed 
a unit by themselves and were paid at arm} 7 rates like the imperial 
yeomanry. 

PAY. 

The troops in South Africa were paid at two different rates. 

(1) The whole of the imperial forces, consisting of regular troops, 
militia, volunteers, and imperial yeomanry, together with all the con- 
tingents furnished by the self-governing colonies outside of South 
Africa, were paid at army rates, i. e. , for private soldiers. Is. a day 
in the infantry and Is. 2d. in the cavalry. Every soldier in time of 
peace receives 3d. a day, messing allowance in addition to Is. pay. In 
war he retains this allowance, and since all his food, including extras, 
is supplied gratis, his pay is really Is. 3d., although for convenience 
in account keeping it is still credited under the two heads. 

(2) The troops in the service of Natal and the Cape Colony, and those 
irregular corps which were raised locally for the purposes of the war, 
were paid at slightly varying rates, averaging a little more than 5s. 
a da} 7 for a private, alike in the infantry and cavalry. 

The proportion of this pay which will eventually be contributed by 
the Imperial and Colonial Governments, respectively, has not yet been 
decided. Temporary arrangements were made which will, probably, 
be revised later. 

The adoption of a uniform rate of pay for all parts of the Empire is 
a suggestion in regard to which no final decision has yet been reached. 
As has been explained, the militia reserve consists of men who enter 
into a special contract with the Government by which, in consideration 
of a small payment each } 7 ear, they assume the obligation of going 
into the army for active duty anywhere, whenever called to do so. 

It has been suggested that a somewhat similar plan might be adopted 
in regard to the auxiliary forces generally, in order to get men who 
would be immediatel} 7 available for foreign service; that is, like the 
militia reserve, they w 7 ould, in return for the payment of a certain sum 
each year, hold themselves in readiness for foreign service when called 
upon. It has also been suggested that such an arrangement might be 
made between the Imperial Government and the members of the auxil- 
iary forces in the self-governing colonies, thus forming a great imperial 
reserve for the army. Any such contract with the members of the 
auxiliary forces either in England or in the colonies would, of course, 
include an agreement as to the rate of pay which the men would receive 
while on foreign service, and this rate of pay should be uniform. A 
proposition to apply this principle to the English volunteers was 
rejected by the Commons in l'JOO. 



47 



COLONIAL CONTINGENTS. 



Offers were made by the various colonial governments to raise, 
equip, and place in the Held in South Africa certain specified forces. 
These offers were accepted by the colonial office. 

On arrival in South Africa the colonial forces practically became a 
part of the regular army for the period of the war. If anything was 
lacking in their equipment it was made up for them. The various 
units provided by each colony, where more than one was sent, were not 
necessarily kept together. 

THE ROYAL RESERVE BATTALIONS. 

Class D of the army reserve has not been maintained at a large 
numerical strengh. This was partly because of a desire not to increase 
unduly the expense of the reserve and partly because after five years' 
absence from duty, soldiers may not be thoroughly efficient. As an 
emergency measure, men who had served twelve years and who had 
been eligible for admission to Class D of the reserve, but who had not 
been encouraged to join the reserve, were, by royal proclamation, 
invited to join what are called the " royal reserve battalions." Like all 
military service in Great Britain, this action on the part of the men 
was entirely voluntary. They are given £12 on joining, which is 
equivalent to two years' pay at <£6 a year, which the} r would have 
received had the}^ entered Class D; in addition, these men were prom- 
ised £12 each when the battalions were disembodied. It was stated 
that this additional bounty of £12 was offered because the men were 
asked to volunteer for service at home. Had the service asked for 
been in South Africa, no additional bounty would have been needed. 

It is possible that in the future Class D of the reserve will be main- 
tained at a greater numerical strength. 

A few words of a general character should, perhaps, be added. 

It will be noted that the British military system as it exists to-day 
dates from Mr. CardwelFs administration. The fundamental principle 
introduced by Mr. Cardwell was short service and a reserve, accom- 
panied by the localization system and the closer association of the 
auxiliary forces with the army. 

One battalion of each regiment was supposed to be on foreign serv- 
ice, about 75,000 men being needed for India and 15,000 for other 
parts of the world. The second battalion of each regiment was at 
home and constituted the home army, which was supposed to be capa- 
ble of furnishing, at any time, two army corps for foreign service or 
three army corps for home defense, the auxiliary forces being relied 
upon to supplement the army in this work. 

As a matter of fact, the establishment was never kept up to its full 
strength, so that when the last war broke out there was not at home the 
force contemplated under the principles of organization as adopted in 
Mr. CardwelTs time. 

Ever since the changes were introduced by Mr. Cardwell the ques- 
tion of the so-called short service and army reserve has been much 
discussed in England, and there have always been those who maintain 
that the long-service system was preferable. But the present war has 
justified the wisdom of Mr. Cardwell's action. The army reserve has 



48 

been of very great value, and the advantages of a reserve are now 
admitted by everyone. 

It is proper to refer to the work of the transport department of the 
admiralty and of the army service corps. Everyone admits the 
admirable work of the transport department, and the reports of all 
the attaches who have watched the embarkation of troops for the front 
have united in commending the excellent way in which the s} r stem has 
worked. On the general subject of the transportation and supply of 
the army certain statements made by Col. Sir Howard Vincent in an 
address delivered by him before the Royal United Service Institution, 
immediate^ after his return from South Africa, will be of interest. 
He calls attention to the "enormous distances which have to be over- 
come in South Africa, the hundreds and hundreds of miles with great 
difficulty of intercommunication." He says: 

In examining the present campaign remember always that your armies have 
been — are — fighting in a country which can furnish next to nothing, except, per- 
haps, a few cattle, decimated by rinderpest, over 6,000 miles away by sea, and then 
between 700 and 800 miles of land, served only by a single railway, and that only 
up to a certain point. 

Or to put it in another way. You start from Calcutta, you land at Marseilles, and 
you are fighting at Hamburg, shorn of all resources, and you have lines of land 
communication of over 1,200 miles to protect. 

THE FEEDING OF THE ARMY. 

To every British soldier in the field has to be conveyed every day for necessaries 
no less than G\ pounds avoirdupois, of which 1J pounds are for cases, tins, etc., 
leaving 5 pounds net; for every native follower, 3 pounds. For every horse 12 
pounds has to be brought up, and for every mule 8 pounds. 

You may take it that in round numbers the field force in South Africa numbers 
200,000 British troops, with 50,000 camp followers. This is a quarter of a million 
persons, with 40,000 horses and 30,000 mules, who have to be provided for upon this 
scale. The total is absolutely appalling. It means the daily conveyance of over 600 
tons of necessaries for the troops, for camp followers, and for animals. The fore- 
thought necessary for the purchase of these enormous stores is great. The calcula- 
tions must be made months ahead. But it is small compared to the difficulties of 
sea and land transport. Yet so smoothly have things worked, so admirably have 
been the arrangements, that not only have supplies never been short, but there has 
been scarcely a difficulty about a single meal, save on the loss of a convoy. I do not 
hesitate to say that no great army in the field has ever been so well fed and with 
such extraordinary regularity. 

HONOR TO WHOM HONOR IS DtTE. 

The credit for this state of things rests in part with the authorities at home, in 
part with the transport department of the Admiralty, but most of all with the army 
service corps, and the organizers of the army transport. It is a duty to pay homage 
to this service, whose labor is greatest, whose opportunity for distinction is least, 
but upon whom depends the fighting efficiency of the soldier, more than upon 
armament, and more than upon leadership, for if it fail both guns and generals are 
useless. 

The troops in South Africa have received as a daily ration per man: one pound of 
fresh or preserved meat (increased to l\ pounds when the supply of cattle has been 
abundant), lj pounds of fresh bread or 1 pound of biscuit, flour or meal, one-half 
pound of potatoes or other fresh vegetables or one-fourth pound of onions or one tin 
of pea soup, 1 ounce of chocolate, two-thirds of an ounce of coffee or one-third of an 
ounce of tea, with 3 ounces of sugar, one-half ounce of salt, and j^ of an ounce of 
pepper, and 12 ounces of jam or marmalade a week. 

In addition to this, spirits and lime juice have to be carried for issue as the com- 
mander in chief may direct, and hospital diets of arrowroot, bovril, brandy, calf's 
foot jelly, champagne, cocoa paste, corn flour, roast fowls, condensed milk, extracts 
of meat, port wine, etc., besides a large quantity of disinfectants. 

These stores, independently of tents, clothing, anus, and ammunition, have to be 
conveyed not alone by sea, but also along a single line of railway, both in Cape Col- 
ony and Natal, and then by ox wagon and nude transport. 



49 

It is needless to say that the present war is likely to produce many 
changes in the organization and treatment of the auxiliary forces; just 
what these changes will be no one is at the present moment able to say. 

Parliament has just increased materially the amount of money which 
will be paid this year to the volunteers, and the question of their 
training is being very carefully considered by officials at the war office 
and by all who are interested in the force. 

A very serious question in connection with calling the volunteers 
out for any length of time is the relation of the force to the business 
interests of the country and the attitude of employers toward the 
proposed increase of time spent in camp. 

EASTER FIELD EXERCISES. 

Under ordinary conditions the Government encourages the volun- 
teers to go out at Easter in considerable numbers for training in the 
field and for practice in executing maneuvers, and they are given a 
grant for the time thus spent. In 1900 the Government adopted what 
it called an emergency plan, the object of which was to secure the 
attendance of the volunteers at camp or garrison at some time during 
the spring or summer for a period of one month if possible. The capi- 
tation grants which were to be paid the corps were based upon a mini- 
mum attendance of fourteen days, with extra compensation in the case 
of officers or men who stay out longer. In 1900 no grant was given to 
the corps which went out at Easter, unless their work was supple- 
mented bj^ a course in musketry, and a battalion like the London Scot- 
tish, which was unable by reason of lack of range accommodations to 
go through this course, received no grant for the time it was out at 
Easter. 

The time at which the different volunteer corps went into camp was, 
so far as possible, arranged to suit the convenience of the members of 
the force. 

Notwithstanding the fact that no allowance was made by the Gov- 
ernment to volunteers going out at Easter, a number of corps did 
arrange for field exercises at this time. The London Scottish, offici- 
ally known as the Seventh Middlesex, being the first volunteer battal- 
ion -of the rifle brigade (the Prince Consort's Own), and the Inns of 
Court, officially known as the Fourth Middlesex, being the second 
volunteer battalion of the rifle brigade, went to Winchester in Hamp- 
shire. The London Scottish is a kilted battalion; their uniform is 
gray, with blue facings, and consists of a Scotch cap with black feath- 
ers, a jacket known as doublet, with a plaid swinging from the left 
shoulder, kilt, heavy hose, white spats, and low or laced shoes. The 
hose usually is without feet, ordinary socks being worn. Field offi- 
cers wear trousers instead of kilts except at levees. 

The battalion has the Slade-Wallace equipment, which consists of 
belt, two cross straps or braces over shoulders fastened to belt, and sup- 
porting valise on back against shoulder blades, mess tin in small of back, 
and great coat rolled at back of waist. Two leather cowhide boxes are 
fastened to front of belt, each holding 50 rounds of ammunition. 
Haversack is carried at left side, and water bottle at right side, each 
slung over opposite shoulder. 

For the exercise of this battalion officers were ordered to bring maps 
of the country, compass, watches, and notebook. 



50 

Only those men took part who volunteered to come, and every 
enlisted man paid 25s., the equivalent of about $6. They lgft London 
Thursday and returned Monda}' night. 

Arrangements for quartering and feeding the troops were made in 
advance; the mayor of Winchester offered the use of theGuild Hall, in 
which the men slept. The Government loaned them blankets, but the 
corps had to pay the cost of transportation. The quartermaster of the 
battalion, Captain Whyte, was formerly a quartermaster in the army, 
serving in the Sixty-third West Suffolk Regiment, and was with Gen. 
Sir Robert Phyre in his march to the relief of Kandahar in 1879, serv- 
ing at that time as quartermaster. 

The men messed in St. John's Rooms near the Guild Hall, where 
arrangements were made with a contractor to suppty them with their 
food. 

Permission to maneuver over a tract of land covering about 12,000 
acres was secured in advance by writing to the owners of the land, 
tenants, and the lessees of the shooting rights. Permission was, in 
every instance, readily granted. 

The character of the work done is best shown by the following 
copies of the papers relating to the field work of the battalion. 

General rules governing the duties of umpires are published, a copy 
of which is annexed hereto. 

The umpire in chief is assisted by junior officers, who bear to him 
in his work the same relation as staff officers to their generals. The 
decisions of umpires are final, there being no appeal. 

The land upon which these maneuvers were held was admirably 
suited for the purpose by reason of the large area over which it was 
possible for the troops to go without restriction, and the varied char- 
acter of the ground. It was apparent that the umpires and officers were 
profiting by the experiences of the British forces in South Africa, for 
great attention was paid to the proper use of cover and to the accuracy 
with which distances were estimated when fire was opened. Where a 
small force advanced over an open country in the face of the enemy 
entrenched in the woods, it was promptly ruled out; and where in one 
instance a force was firing at the enemy with sights set for 1,100 yards 
when the actual distance was only 600, the fire was decided to be of no 
effect. Of course these features of peace maneuvers must always be 
of relatively insignificant value as compared with actual service," but 
the decisions of the umpires on such points serve at least to impress 
upon officers and men lessons of practical value. 

Following are copies of instructions issued for the Easter maneuvers 
of the London Scottish battalion and the report of Colonel Balfour on 
the work done at this time: 

EASTER, 1900. 

London Scottish Regiment; Volunteer Corps — Operations west of Winchester, April 

13-16, 1900. 

General Idea. 

A force (white caps), operating in its own country, is based at Salisbury. 

A force (blue caps), operating in an enemy's country, is based at Winchester. 

Operations commence at about 3.30 p. m. on April 13, and will continue on same 
general idea until the evening of the 16th of April. 

Special ideas will be isued on the 13th of April; those for the 14th and 16th of 
April, dependent <>n the results of operations on the previous day, will also be issued. 



51 

Officers commanding both forces will explain completely these special ideas to all 
ranks under their command. 

White Caps, Nos. 1 and 2: Companies under command of Capt. G. A. Malcolm. 
Blue Caps, Nos. 3, 4, and 5: Companies under command of Capt. J. W. Greig. 

By order: 

F. H. Neish, 
Captain, Adjutant London Scottish Regiment, Volunteer Corps, 



Special Idea. 
[Confidential.] 

BLUE CAPS. 

April 13, 1900. 

Headquarters, Winchester, April 13, 1900 — 3 p. m. 
To Capt. J. W. Greig, 

London Scottish Regiment Volunteers: 
(V\ Enemy are reported by cavalry patrols on Tegdown. 
(2J Ascertain his strength and dispositions. 

(3) Avoid a general engagement. 

(4) Your force consists of the London Scottish Regiment Volunteers. 

By order: 

X. Y., Brigade Major. 

Captain Greig may assume that the usual routine orders for parade, etc., of the 
London Scottish Regiment Volunteers have been issued and complied with, and that 
at 3.30 p. m. the point of the advanced guard has arrived at point 364 on Roman 
road, about three-fourths mile west of west gate, Winchester. 

Note. — A precis of all orders and instructions issued by Captain Greig, together 
with a very concise report on his view of the general result of the tactical opera- 
tions, marked "Confidential," will be sent to the adjutant as soon as possible on 
return to quarters. By order: 

F. H. Neish, 
Captain, Adjutant London Scottish Regiment Volunteer Corps. 



Special Idea. 
[Confidential.] 

WHITE CAPS. 

April 13, 1900. 

You are in command of the advanced guard of a brigade moving on Pittdown. At 
2.30 p. m. on the 13th of April, 1900, you arrive at Tegdown; having previously 
received orders to form an outpost line to cover the brigade on Pittdown, you form 
your advanced guard into an outpost line on Tegdown. 

The brigade will form reserve to outposts. 

Pittdown is line of resistance. 

About 2.30 p. m, cavalry patrols of the enemy have been met by your cavalry 
patrols and retired on Winchester. 

Note.— Captain Malcolm will furnish a rough sketch of the ground, showing dis- 
position of outpost line, together with a very concise report on his view of the gen- 
eral result of the tactical operations. He will also, on arrival at Tegdown, draft a 
letter requisitioning ammunition, rations, and water. These should be sent to the 
adjutant as soon as possible on return to quarters. 

By order: 

F. H. Neish, 
Captain, Adjutant London Scottish Regiment Volunteer Corps. 



52 

Special Idea. 
[Confidential.] 

BLUE CAPS. 

April 14, 1900. 

Result of reconnoissance yesterday by London Scottish was that the enemy's left 
flank was located at Crab wood Farm; Dean Village is occupied by a detached force 
to-day. 

The country between Dean Village and Winchester is clear of the enemy. 

Winchester, April 4, 1900 — 9 a. m. 
To Captain Greig: 
Attached rough sketch just received, and is forwarded for your information. 
You will move to-day at 11.15 a. m. from Winchester in order to further locate 
the present position of enemy and to press him back if possible. The First Brigade 
will support you at 4 p. m. 
By order: 

X. Y., 
Chief Stuff Officer, First Division. 



Special Idea. 
[Confidential.] 
WHITE. CAPS. 

April 14, 1900. 

Captain Malcolm has received, at 10.45 a. m., the following message from O. C, 
Pittdown Brigade: 

"Spies report reenforcements are arriving at Wimbledon. Fall back slowly on 
brigade at Pittdown when pressed. I am strongly intrenched at and between the 
Round Woods (not named on map), due south of Sheldon Oak Copse." 



PRECIS OP RESULT OF TACTICAL OPERATIONS WEST OP WINCHESTER APRIL 13 AND 14, 

1900. 

April 13. 

"White Caps" occupied an outpost line on Tegdown, covering a brigade, 
intrenching themselves on Pittdown, where they arrived at 2 p. m. April 13. Being 
attacked, this outpost line fell back on position — the line of resistance. 

"Blue Caps" made a reconnoissance to ascertain strength and disposition of 
enemy. In this they failed beyond locating the enemy's left as resting on Crabwood 
Farm, but succeeded in occupying the village of Dean. 

April 14. 

"White Caps," when pressed, fell back slowly on their main position at Pittdown, 
where they joined their brigade in a very strong defensive position. 

" Blue Caps," feinting on enemy's front, attacked his lett flank. They were reen- 
forced at 4 p. in. by a brigade, but were unable to drive " White Caps" from their 
intrenched position. 



53 

Special Idea. 
[Confidential.] 

BLUE CAPS. 

April 16, 1900. 

(1) Captain Greig, with one battalion of infantry, has been ordered to forage and 
collect supplies at Sparsholt and Merecourt and Westeey Farms, and he will "com- 
mandeer" the necessary transport. 

(2) Dean, Weeke, and all intervening country to Winchester are held by Blue 
Caps. 

(3) The northern and western edge of Crab Wood are held by enemy, but this 
force is watched for troops detached from Dean. Captain Greig's south flank is 
therefore secure. 

N. B. — («) Operations will cease from 1.30 to 2.15 p. m., during which time men 
may fall out, but no movement of troops is to take place. 

(b) The Blue Caps attack on Pittdown was repulsed on April 14, 1900. 



Special Idea. 
[Confidential.] 

WHITE CAPS. 

April 16, 1900. 

Pitt Down, April 16, 1900 — 11 p. m. 
To Captain Malcolm, 

London Scottish Regiment Volunteers: 

(1) Enemy are reported as intending to forage at Sparsholt, Merecourt farm, and 
Westley farm to-day. 

(2) Dean, Weeke, and all intervening country to Winchester are held by the 
enemy. 

(3) Drive in foraging parties, and, if possible, capture their supplies. 

(4) Any countermove of enemy on line from North point of Crabwood, through 
Crabwood on to Roman road, will be watched by No. 2 battalion. 

By order: 

A. B., 
Major, Brigade-Major, Pitt Down Brigade. 

N. B. — (a) Operations will cease from 1.30 to 2.15 p. m., during which time men 
may fall out, but no movements of troops are to take place. 

(b) White Caps being in a friendly country are more or less secure, except from 
the east. 

(c) The attack on Pitt Down on April 14, 1900, was repulsed and the enemy 
retreated on Winchester. 



PRECIS OF OPERATIONS ON APRIL 16, 1900. 
[In continuation of former precis.] 

The Blue Caps having been repulsed in their attack on Pitt Down on April 14, 1900, 
rested in Winchester on April 15, 1900. 

On the 16th of April one battalion was ordered to forage at Sparsholt, and Mere- 
court and Westley farms, and bring in supplies to Winchester. 

This they had half succeeded in doing, but owing to the officer commanding the 
covering party of Westley farm foraging party not complying with his orders as to 
line of retreat, the White Caps, by a very wide turning movement, were able to inter- 
cept a portion of the convoy. 



54 

The following- is a report of Colonel Balfour, commanding the Lon- 
don Scottish Regiment. 

While there was no obligation to submit such a report, Colonel Bal- 
four forwarded it to the colonel commanding the regimental district 
in which the maneuvers took place, and by him it will be forwarded 
to the general commanding the brigade of which the London Scottish 
forms a part. 

Seventh Middlesex (London Scottish) Volunteers, 
report on the easter training, 1900. 

Numbers. — Owing to the uncertainty surrounding the conditions for the emergency 
encampments and other causes, the whole expenses were borne by individual mem- 
bers of the corps. This resulted in the numbers being reduced from an estimated 
600 to 209. 

Locality — accommodation. — The locality selected for training was Winchester, where 
suitable sleeping accommodation was generously provided by the corporation in the 
Guild Hall. Temporary lavatories and latrines were erected at the expense of the 
corps. 

Feeding. — The feeding of the noncommissioned officers and men was satisfactorily 
carried out by a contract in a large hall with kitchens attached, hired for the purpose. 

Maneuver area.— Through the assistance of Capt. and Hon. Maj. W. B. Puckle 
(who himself owns some of the property) and by the kindness of the owners and 
occupiers, a large tract of ground was secured for tactical instruction, absolutely free 
from any restrictions. This ground is shaped roughly like a triangle, witli Win- 
chester at its eastern apex. Each side measured about 5 miles. It contains almost 
every variety of country— open downs, large and small woods, closed fields, farms, 
villages, etc. 

Tactical instruction.— The battalion was divided into five provisional companies (A 
and B, No. 1, and so on) and was separated into two opposing forces of tnree and 
two companies, respectively. These were placed under the command of captains, 
who were given a free hand to carry out the general and special ideas. The field 
officers and adjutant acted as umpires. It was thus possible to exercise a very 
minute supervision of the action of small units and even individuals. The results 
of this observation were communicated to the officers each evening on return to 
Winchester. 

The operations lasted about eight hours each day, the midday meal being carried 
in the haversacks and a pause made in the movements for a fixed interval of time. 

The schemes, which were drafted by the adjutant who had surveyed the whole 
ground, were continuous, each day commencing with the troops in the positions 
which they occupied when the cease firing sounded on the previous day. 

Diary of work. — Thursday: A portion of the battalion was able to leave London on 
the Thursday morning. They detrained at Micheldever, about 10 miles north of 
Winchester. The tactical exercises illustrated a strong infantry patrol from outposts 
attacked by irregular troops in a hostile country. 

Friday: The morning of Friday was given to instruction in outposts. 

After the midday meal the tactical scheme commenced, and consisted in a recon- 
noissance in force by the "Blue Cap" force based on Winchester, endeavorin- to 
pierce the outpost line of "White Cap" force based on Salisbury, and acting m a 
friendly country, covering the preparation of a position by an imaginary brigade. 
The ' ' Blue Caps ' ' failed to penetrate the outpost line, which, however, fell back al >< tut 
three-quarters of a mile. This day's work was carried on in open ground, with lew 
hedge rows. 

Saturday: The movement continued, "White Caps" retiring their left through a 
large and very intricate wood on to the prepared position, followed by the right of 
"Blue Caps."' The " Blue Cap" commander reported to his imaginary brigadier on 
the possible methods of attacking the position, which, however, was clearly unassail- 
able without much greater superiority. Most of the ground gained, however, was 

held. 

Monday: Monday's exercises consisted in the "commandeering" and conveying of 
carts and stores for the supply of the Winchester ( " Blue Cap") force. The " White- 
Caps" succeeded by a wide turning movement in eapturinga portion of the convoy. 
Much of this day's work was carried on in a country of small fields. 



55 

General. — Many mistakes were, of course, made, both in the general handling and 
in the minor leading, one of the chief errors being unnecessary exposure. These, 
however, were daily pointed out in the evenings, and I venture to think that con- 
siderable improvement was made in every direction. 

Advantages of Easter. — Although Easter-time has some disadvantages as a period for 
volunteer training, I venture to point out — 

(1) That under the usual conditions more men of the class of which the London- 
Scottish is composed can go out then than at any other time. 

(2) That at no other time of the year could such a tract of country be obtained 
free from restriction and without compensation. 

E. .1. A. Balfour, 
Lieutenant-Colonel, Commanding London-Scottish Regiment, Volunteer < 'orps. 

April 20, 1900. 

THE HONORABLE ARTILLERY COMPANY. 

The Honorable Artillery Company of London occupies a unique 
position. It is not a part of the army, nor is it a part of the militia, 
yeomanry, or volunteers, nor does it owe its existence to am T of the 
laws creating- these different forces. It was incorporated by Henry 
VIII in 1537, although it had previously existed as an armed associa- 
tion, and it has occupied its present headquarters since 1650. 

Originally the corps consisted of infantry alone, but about a hun- 
dred years ago artillery, which developed into a field battery, was 
added to the establishment, as well as a troop of light cavaliy in 1861. 
In 1889 the regiment was reorganized, the light cavalry was converted 
into horse artillery, and in 1899 the held battery was converted into 
a battery of horse artillery, so that the corps now consists of two 
horse-artillery batteries, each of four guns, and a battalion of infan- 
tiy, the effective strength of the whole corps being nearly a thousand. 
The batteries now have the new 15-pounder breechloader. The gun- 
ners and mounted noncommissioned officers provide their own horses. 

In December, 1899, a large number of the members of this corps 
volunteered for service in South Africa, and of these 83 of the artil- 
lery division, including 5 officers, with the addition of some others 
from various volunteer corps, formed a 1-gun field battery, which was 
accepted as a portion of the City of London Imperial Volunteers. 
The battery sailed for South Africa fully equipped on February 3, 
having been previously assembled for four weeks at St. John's Wood 
Barracks. This spring the corps has been sixteen days in camp on 
Salisbuiy Plain, 85 per cent of the members attending and 65 per 
cent remaining the entire time, thus more than fulfilling the Govern- 
ment conditions for obtaining the largest possible grant. The work 
which was done by the horse batteries at stationaiy and moving targets 
was most excellent. The target practice was carried on near the Bul- 
ford Camp on Salisbury Plains, not very far from Stonehenge. 

The targets, made to resemble a column of infantry, were arranged 
on barrels to which long ropes were attached; these were drawn by 
horses. The batteries were given a station, and the targets were placed 
in a depression of the ground, so as to be invisible. Officers com- 
manding the battery were not given any information as to range. The 
targets were drawn by the horses, so what seemed to be an advancing 
column of infantry came into sight over the crest of a small rise of 
ground. The batteries were then expected to open tire, to find the 
range, and if possible check the advance. This work, as well as firing 



56 

at stationary targets, was carefully watched by artillery officers from 
the army, who marked the results of every shot tired and reported in 
detail upon the effectiveness of the tire, fire discipline, etc. 

A large number of the men were recruits, and they had had no target 
practice for over a year, but notwithstanding this fact they secured a 
rating by army officers of 35, the figure 36 being the mark which 
would entitle an organization of the royal artillery to be rated as first- 
class marksmen. The excellent condition and general efficiency of this 
corps are largely due to the ability and energy of its colonel command- 
ant, the Earl of Denbigh and Desmond, who was formerly an officer of 
the royal artillery and who combined with the knowledge of the 
trained soldier a clear understanding of the needs and requirements 
of this corps. 

PARLIAMENT AND THE MILITARY FORCES. 

In England Parliament is supreme. There is no written constitu- 
tion to set a limit upon its powers, and no court exists which can 
question the constitutionality of its acts. From the choice of a sover- 
eign to the passage of a private bill, from the conduct of a great war 
to the protection of the water in the English streams, it is supreme in 
the exercise of its manifold and complex duties. An elective bod}' is 
never well adapted b} r temper or character to attend to the details of 
administrative work, and in the general direction of its work it needs 
leadership and direction. This is secured in the first instance by the 
selection of a prime minister, who is in theory the choice of the Sov- 
ereign, and again, in theory, responsible to the Sovereign. 

As a matter of fact, the prime minister to-day, although named by 
the Sovereign, is practically the choice of the dominant party in Par- 
liament, and although the influence of the Sovereign is not to be 
ignored, under ordinary conditions the Sovereign's action is one of 
acquiescence. The cabinet is practically a committee of Parliament 
selected by the prime minister, and in its collective capacity acts as a 
committee of the majority in the conduct and direction of affairs. 

The secretary of state for foreign affairs, the secretary of state for 
the colonies, the secretary of state for war, and the other members of 
the cabinet are charged with the work properly pertaining to their 
several departments, and, in the ordinary language of the time, are 
responsible to Parliament for the exercise of the power vested in them 
by their appointment; but, as a matter of fact, the cabinet always 
stands or falls together, and consequently it is not, accurately speak- 
ing, a fact that any individual member of the cabinet is directly 
responsible for the administration of his department. He always has 
his party back of him, because a vote of censure upon any individual 
minister would be a vote of censure upon the Government, which 
would be followed by the resignation of the ministry. 

The department which is presided over by the secretary of state for 
war is known as the war office. There is a parliamentary undersecre- 
tary of state for war who is a member of Parliament and a permanent 
undersecretary of state for war, not a member of Parliament, who 
retains his office independently of the changes which may take place 
in the office of secretary of state for war. There is a finance depart- 
ment, consisting of a financial secretary, an accountant-general, and a 



57 

director of contracts, who hold their office permanently. Quite apart 
from this side of the war office is the military department, made up 
of the headquarters staff of the army. 

The position of commander in chief is filled by a field marshal. 
Attached to the headquarters staff are the military secretary, the 
director of military intelligence, the adjutant-general to the forces, the 
quartermaster-general to the forces, the inspector-general of fortifi- 
cations, the director-general of ordnance, and many .subordinate offi- 
cers who work under the direction or control of the officers on the 
headquarters staff. While in England and in America there is a mili- 
tary officer who is nominally supposed to command the armies and 
exercise the power and control which goes with such a position, as a 
matter of fact that power is in both countries limited; in America by 
the fact that the President is, under the Constitution, commander in 
chief, and through the secretary of war can exercise all the authority 
of that position, and by the further fact that the secretary of war is 
by law responsible for all expenditures of money for the Army, and 
in England b} 7 the fact that Parliament is supreme, and the secretary 
of state for war, having the nominal authority of the Sovereign and 
the actual authority of Parliament, may curtail to almost an}' extent 
the power of the commander in chief. 

The fact is that in England and America, with their political condi- 
tions, it is absolutely impossible to conceive of any system under which 
the people will give up their right to have civilian rather than military 
control of the army. All this is entirely consistent with giving a gen- 
eral who is in command of troops in the field absolute freedom to carry 
on the purely military operations, in accordance with his judgment as 
a military expert; the importance of doing this was recognized by the 
English Government during the Boer war, Lord Roberts and later 
Lord Kitchener having been given absolute authority on all military 
operations. 

In England the officers of the staff who have been named above 
report directly and individually to the secretary of state for war, so 
that if the secretary of state for war, who is invariabl} T a civilian, 
desires advice in regard to certain matters upon which he must take 
official action, it is possible that he may get conflicting advice on 
the same subject from the commander in chief, the ad]utant-general, 
the quartermaster-general, and the director general of ordnance. The 
advice may differ fundamentally or in minor details, and the differences 
may be due to the fact that each officer has worked out the problem 
from his own standpoint without having viewed it in its relation to the 
other departments, which must be more or less concerned in the 
decision at which the secretary of state for war arrives. It does not, 
of course, follow that this must happen, on the contrary it is possible 
that the advice may be given after a careful consideration of the prob- 
lem by all concerned, so as to secure harmonious and effective results; 
but there is nothing in the system which of itself secures this end, and 
it would only be the result of the wisdom of the officials concerned. 

The statement of these conditions is sufficient to make plain the fact 
that the machinery which exists for solving the military problems in 
England is not that which is most likely to secure the best possible 
results. Political and financial considerations inevitably, and to a cer- 
tain extent properly, must always have weight, but beyond this there 



58 

have been in the past in England, as in America, differences of opinions 
among officers of high rank in regard to questions of vit^l moment, 
and this has sometimes resulted in the adoption of. makeshifts or tem- 
porary expedients, instead of in the wisest and best solutions of the 
difficulties. 

When America or England is confronted by the emergency and 
strain of an unexpected war, is is always found that certain features 
of either organization or administration do not produce satisfactory 
results. In many cases the fault for this is laid at the door of certain 
individuals, but whatever may be the justice of such criticism it should 
never be forgotten that the system is, to a great extent, responsible for 
the unsatisfactory results. Efforts are making in England to modify the 
system in such a way as to minimize the chances of those evils which 
follow the lack of wise preparation or divided counsels, but it must be 
left for the future to show whether a satisfactory method of accom- 
plishing these results can be worked out. 

Some changes will probably be made. Whether the Empire will 
profit to the fullest extent by the experiences through which it has 
passed remains to be seen. If it does, it will be an exception to the 
unbroken practice in England and America, which has in every instance 
been to ignore in time of peace the lessons taught by war. Whether 
the English people are satisfied with their military conditions they 
alone can say, and their action during the next few years will be their 
answer. 

But what England may do, while of interest to us, is not of so much 
importance as the question what we are going to do about our State 
forces, and in the conclusion of this report there will be found some 
suggestions as to how we can profit by our own experiences in the 
Spanish war, and utilize more effectively and intelligently that patriotic 
spirit which manifests itself in the existing State forces, and which 
in the people at large always asserts itself in its eagerness for active 
service when war threatens. 

THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT AND THE WAR. 

Mr. Burdctt-Coutts, a member of Parliament, upon his return from 
South Africa, made in the House of Commons certain statements in 
regard to the medical service in South Africa, which led to the appoint- 
ment of a commission to inquire into the work of the medical corps. 
Undoubtedly many interesting and valuable facts will be brought out 
in the report of this commission, which at the present time" has not 
been published. By the kindness of Surgeon-General Jameson, 
director-general, and of Surgeon-General Muir, deputy director- 
general, I was able to obtain the following facts in regard to the medi- 
cal service in South Africa during the Boer war: 

A surgeon-general was appointed principal medical officer of the force, with a major 
of the royal army medical corps as his secretary. 

Each division of the army commanded by a lieutenant-general had a principal 
medical officer, who was given temporarily the rank of surgeon-general. There was 
also an officer appointed as secretary to each principal medical officer. 

Every regiment of cavalry, brigade division of artillery, and battalion of infantry 
had a medical officer attached to it. 



^November, 1900. 



59 

HOSPITALS. 

These consisted of general hospitals, stationary hospitals on lines of communication, 
and field hospitals attached to and moving with hrigades, the latter working in con- 
nection with bearer companies. 

The general hospital consists normally of 520 beds (20 for officers), but the neces- 
sities of the situation demanded great elasticity and expansion, especially in the case 
of the general hospitals in or near Cape Town, the base of operations (as many as 
1,600 patients had to be accommodated at one time in No. 1 general hospital). The 
normal staff consists of a principal medical officer with temporary rank of surgeon- 
general, a lieutenant-colonel as registrar and secretary, 18 medical officers, a quarter- 
master, 9 nursing sisters, and of the royal army medical corps, 2 warrant officers, 26 
noncommissioned officers, and 115 privates. This personnel was largely increased 
when occasion demanded. 

There were 14 general hospitals, 3 being at or near Cape Town and the rest at 
convenient centers, such as Pietermaritzburg and Mooi River, in Natal ; Modder 
River, Bloemfontein, and Pretoria, in the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal. 

Stationary hospitals were established at various points on the lines of communica- 
tion, their situations being changed now and again as the army advanced into the 
enemy's country. Our stationary hospitals normally consisted of 100 beds, and the 
staff is 4 medical officers, a quartermaster, 12 noncommissioned officers, and 28 
privates. Of these there were 4. 

Field hospitals are each intended to accommodate 100 wounded, but can be divided 
into four sections if required. The personnel is 4 medical officers, a quartermaster, 
12 noncommissioned officers, and 23 privates of the royal army medical corps, with 
a sergeant and 19 men of the army service corps for transport duties. The number 
of field hospitals was 27. 

Bearer companies each consisted of 3 officers, 13 noncommissioned officers, 44 pri- 
vates, and a bugler of the royal army medical corps, with 38 men of the army service 
corps for transport. There were 18 bearer companies. 

HOSPITAL SHIPS. 

Some 7 or 8 large passenger steamships were chartered by the Government and 
fitted as hospital ships. In these the number of the personnel varied according to 
size. Besides there were the Princess of Wales, chartered by the Central British Red 
Cross Committee and fitted up by Her Royal Highness the Princess of Wales, and 
the Maine, which was placed at the disposal of the Government by the ladies of 
America. 

Hospital trains were especially fitted up in Natal and Cape Colony, while the 
"Princess Christian train" was constructed in England and sent out at the expense 
of the Central Red Cross Committee and the princess whose name was given to it. 

Medical store depots: Two at the base; 2 "advanced." 

The medical staff of the army had to be largely augmented by civilians, comprising 
medical men, nursing sisters, and side attendants, the latter being furnished by the 
organization known as the St. John Ambulance Brigade. The following is an 
approximate calculation of the numbers in Government employment and those 
temporarily employed : 

Four hundred and eighty officers of royal army medical corps of all ranks; 408 
civilian surgeons, not including many employed locally in South Africa; 52 nursing 
sisters, army nursing service; 429 nursing sisters, army nursing reserve ( besides these, 
nurses were engaged locally in South Africa, probably 100) ; 4,000 noncommissioned 
officers and men, royal army medical corps; 1,500 volunteer medical staff corps 
and St. John Club; and some 2,000 men were engaged in South Africa. 

All the above were in the pay of Government, but it must be understood that 
there were various hospitals established and maintained by the munificence of 
private individuals and voluntary subscriptions, the personnel of which is not 
included in the above, viz: 

The Imperial Yeomanry Hospital, a general hospital of 500 beds, expanding to 
twice that size, established at Dealfontein, Cape Colony. Its work is still proceeding. 

The Portland Hospital, given by the Duke of Portland. 

The Irish Hospital, given by Lord Iveagh. 

The Langman Hospital, given by J. L. Langman, esq. 

The Princess Christian Hospital, given by J. Moseley, esq. 

The Welch Hospital, the Scottish Hospital, National (Glasgow), and the Scottish 
Hospital (Edinburgh), given by private subscription. 

14590—03 5 



60 

These were hospitals of 100 to 150 beds, mostly of the "stationary" hospital type, 
but some were provided with transport. 

Two field hospitals were also provided, one as an adjunct to the Imperial Yeomanry 
Hospital and the other by J. Van Alen, esq., of the United States (who accompanied 
it to the front). 

The actors and actresses of the United Kingdom provided and furnished a hospital 
hut of 28 beds, which they handed over to the Government for use. In fact, the 
national generosity evinced itself in different ways far too numerous to mention. 
The Central British Red Cross Society and the "absent-minded beggars" fund were 
active in giving most valuable assistance in many ways toward the comfort of the 
sick and wounded, and the Red Cross societies of many nations proffered aid, which 
was gratefully accepted. 

It was the aim of the director-general, throughout the campaign, to provide and 
keep up (as the army increased in strength) hospital accommodation for 10 per cent 
of the force in South Africa. This force w r as, at its maximum, about 250,000 men of 
all ranks. 

It may be mentioned that certain eminent surgeons were employed as "consult- 
ants," and their services were found most valuable during the first period of the war. 

EDUCATION OF OFFICERS. 

There are two institutions which train cadets for entrance into the 
army as officers, the Royal Military College, at Sandhurst, which edu- 
cates cadets to become officers of infantry and cavalry, and the Royal 
Military Academy, at Woolwich, which educates cadets to become 
officers in the artillery and engineers. 

ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE. 

At the Royal Military College, at Sandhurst, the limit of age for 
entrance to the academy is 17 to 19. The course was at one time two 
years, but it has since been reduced to one year and a half, and during 
war, when officers are needed, it has in certain cases been reduced to 
six months. 

The academy is delightfully situated on a property of about 300 
acres, well wooded and containing a small stream and lake. Entrance 
is by competitive examination, except in the case of certain cadets 
nominated by the Queen (known as Queen's cadets), who pay no fees, 
honorary Queen's cadets, who pa} T the regulation fees, Indian cadets, 
and pages of honor. All these are subject to a qualifying examination. 

The number in the academy is ordinarily 360. The cadets are divided 
into two classes, the first class and the second class. The length of 
the course of instruction is eighteen months, divided into three terms. 
The obligatory studies during the course are military administration, 
military law, tactics, military history, and geography, military engi- 
neering, military topography, French and German, drill, riding, and 
gymnastics. 

Cadets of the senior division who have completed their course satis- 
factorily and are reported as duly qualified in all respects are eligible 
to commission in the army as vacancies occur, and are gazetted to the 
regiments as second lieutenants as far as possible in their order of 
merit. 

In qualifying for a commission a cadet must get one-half of the 
aggregate marks and one-third of the examiner's marks in each sub- 
ject. Before being eligible for commissions, cadets must pass a strict 
medical examination. 



61 

ROYAL, MILITARY ACADEMY. 

The terms of admission, the subjects of examinations, and the 
annual fees are the same for the academy as for the college, with the 
exception that the cadets must be between 16 and 18 years of age. 
The course lasts two years, and is divided into four terms. Instruc- 
tion is given in mathematics and mechanics, field and permanent fortifi- 
cations, topograph}- and surveying, French, German, tactics, artillery, 
electricity, musketry, drawing, the drilling of field and garrison artil- 
leiy, riding, and gymnastics. On the successful completion of the 
course, cadets are commissioned as second lieutenants. Their stand- 
ing in the examinations, which are held half-yearly, fixes the cadet's 
rank, and upon this depends his right of selecting the arm in which he 
wishes to serve — whether artillery or engineers. 

In the appendix will be found the regulations governing the college 
and the academy and printed information issued by the institutions, 
which will show the scope of the work done. It will be seen that the 
course is shorter than at West Point. The fact that the demand for 
officers is very much larger in England than with us is one of the 
important reasons for making the preparatory course of study less 
extensive than that demanded for entrance to our Army from our 
Military Academy. 

THE STAFF COLLEGE. 

At the time of my visit to England the staff college was closed, all 
the instructing officers being needed for duty. 

Officers applying for admission must be under 35 } T ears of age, 
must have served five years, and must have passed the examination 
necessary to qualify them for promotion to the rank of captain. 

They must ride well, and must produce a certificate from their commanding 
officer testifying to their fitness as regimental officers, and their probable usefulness 
as officers of the general staff. 

The entrance examination covers mathematics, field fortification, 
topograph}^ tactics, military law, army administration, and one foreign 
language, either French, German, Russian, or Hindustanee. Geogra- 
phy, military history, higher mathematics, and two more of the above 
languages are optional. The course lasts two years, and six weeks of 
each year is spent on duty either in camp at Aldershot or with 
another arm of the service than that from which the officer came. 
Allowances are made for travel abroad for the purpose of visiting 
battlefields, etc. 

At the conclusion of the course the commandant of the college 
writes a report, based on the excellence of the examinations and on the 
opinions he has formed, in which he states his estimate of the fitness 
of the different officers for service with the staff or in other branches 
of the service. 

ARTILLERY SCHOOL OF GUNNERY. 

The Artillery School of Gunnery is under the direct management 
of the adjutant-general. The principal school with an experimental 
department is at Shoeburyness, and there are branches at Woolwich, 
the Isle of Wight, Plymouth, Sheerness, and Aldershot. The school 



62 

at Woolwich is used largely for the education of officers and non- 
commissioned officers of the militia and volunteer artillery. 

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING. 

• 

There is a school of engineering at Chatham, in Kent, where instruc- 
tion is given in permanent and field fortifications, surveying, electricity, 
and tactics. The department of the school which has charge of the 
balloon work has been transferred to Aldershot. 

As part of the general plan of instruction, there are submarine min- 
ing classes at Chatham, Plymouth, and Portsmouth, in which officers 
and noncommissioned officers and men of the submarine mining corps 
of the militia and volunteers are instructed in submarine mining and 
in the use of torpedoes. 

ARTILLERY COLLEGE. 

There is an artillery college at Woolwich in which artillery officers 
are trained for the work in the ordnance department, the experimental 
department, and the school of gunnery, and where officers and non- 
commissioned officers of the artillery are trained in the construction 
and treatment of the material. 

MUSKETRY SCHOOL. 

At the musketry school, at Hythe, in Kent, officers and noncommis- 
sioned officers of the infantiy and cavalry are instructed in musketry. 

The course includes, in accordance with regulations, instruction in 
the use and management of machine guns. Officers of the militia, 
yeomanry, and volunteers attend this school. 

GYMNASTICS. 

The Central School of Gymnastics at Aldershot, which is under the 
personal superintendence of the instructor of gymnasia, with the rank 
of colonel, trains a certain number of officers and men in the gymnas- 
tic work adopted for the army. One of the advantages of this system 
is that a uniform system of instruction in gymnastics prevails through- 
out the entire service, noncommissioned officers who have successfully 
passed through the course here being used as instructors in the differ- 
ent units to which they are sent. 

SIGNALING. 

There is at Aldershot a school for instruction in signaling. Officers 
and noncommissionefrofficers who have had some training with their 
corps are sent to this school. There are two annual courses for 30 
officers each and 3 courses for 30 noncommissioned officers. All 
instructors and assistant instructors throughout the service are selected 
from the officers and noncommissioned officers who have successfully 
completed a course in this school. 



63 

SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. 



At Netley, near Southampton, there is a school of medicine under 
the charge of the director-general of the medical department, where 
annually appointed lieutenants receive further training- m their work 
as military surgeons. 



VETERINARY SCHOOL. 



The Army Veterinary School, at Aldershot, gives instruction to 
annually appointed veterinary surgeons, farriers, and blacksmiths. 



SCHOOL OF MUSIC. 



The Royal Military School of Music, at Hounslow, trains noncom- 
missioned officers for the post of bandmaster, and privates and boys as 
bandsmen. 



# SCHOOL OF COOKERY. 

The School of Cookery, at Aldershot, trains noncommissioned officers 
as sergeant cooks. 

MILITARY CYCLING. 

Very careful thought has been given b}- able officers in England to 
the use of cyclists in connection with the problems of home defense in 
England. Major-General Maurice, Col. Eustace Balfour, and many 
other officers have not onl} T written on the general subject, but have 
personally interested themselves in practical operations in which the 
bicycle has been used. In a country like England, where as a rule the 
highways are excellent, there is an opportunity for the use of bicyclists 
which would not be possible on any very large scale in this country; 
their value, however, for certain kinds of work in this country should 
not be overlooked. 

THE NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION. 

No account of the English volunteer system would be complete which 
did not refer to the National Rifle Association, which was founded in 
1860 "to give permanence to volunteer corps and to encourage rifle 
shooting throughout the Queen's dominions," and which was incorpo- 
rated bj* royal charter in 1890. A full account of the association and 
its work is found in the publication of the association included in the 
appendix to this report, which sets forth in detail the competitions 
and rules of the meeting of 1900, which was held, as usual, at Bisley. 
Through the courtesy of Brig. Gen. Sir Henry Fletcher, M. P., 
chairman of the council, I had the pleasure of attending the annual 
meeting with him and witnessing some of the competitions. The com- 
petitions include shooting with the service rifle, carbines, sporting 
rifles, and revolvers by individuals and teams and at stationary and 
moving targets. It is of especial interest to note that the competitions 
are participated in by cadets and teams from the public and other schools. 



64 

Many persons who, like Sir Henry Fletcher, clearly recognize the 
importance of improving the individual shooting of the numbers of 
any fighting force are earnestly endeavoring to widen the field of use- 
fulness of this association, and Lord Salisbury has referred to the 
importance of following more closely the lead of Switzerland in this 
particular line. But there is this wide difference between England 
and America on the one hand and Switzerland on the other, that in the 
first two countries rifle shooting is to a very great extent looked upon 
as a duty, while in Switzerland it is practically the national pastime. 



PART III. 

SWITZERLAND. 



65 



SWITZERLAND. 

From the earliest times the people who have inhabited what is now 
called Switzerland have lived a strenuous life. With labor and toil 
they have wrested their livelihood from valley farms and mountain 
pastures. On many a bloody battlefield they have fought and died for 
their liberties and their national life, and in their battles they have 
always proved themselves a brave and hard} 7- race. 

A hundred years before Christ the Helvetian Tigurini won a brilliant 
victory over a Roman army under the consul Cassius, the Romans being 
utterly routed. Cassius and his lieutenant Piso were both slain, and 
the Romans were compelled to give hostages and pass under the yoke. 
Later, in B. C. 58, the Helvetians, thinking that the fertile plains of 
Gaul were better than their snow-covered mountains, planned to 
migrate into Gaul; they burned their towns and villages and started 
on their journey, but were met by Caesar and his legions. On their 
demand for a free passage Caesar asked for hostages, but they replied 
that the Helvetians were accustomed to receive, not to give, hostages. 

At Bibracte Caesar attacked the Helvetians, and after a most heroic 
struggle the Helvetians were overwhemingly defeated; they were 
compelled to return to theii country and rebuild their towns, and were 
arbitrarily made a part of Gaul, although Caesar allowed them to 
remain a separate district and to arrange their own internal affairs. 

About the time that Hengist and Horsa came into England, the 
Alemanni and the Burgundians overran Helvetia, the Allemanni settling 
in the east, and the Burgundians in the west, thus laying the foundation 
for the difference of race which has since given the German and French 
influences their predominance in the different parts of Switzerland. 
For years the Alemanni and the Burgundians fought each other; but 
under Clovis the Alemanni were defeated, and a united Helvetia 
became part of the great empire over which, subsequently, Charlemagne 
ruled. On the division of the empire by the treaty of Verdun, Hel- 
vetia was again divided, but under Henry the Fowler in the tenth 
century both parts were incorporated in the German Empire. 

What may be called the starting point in the history of the modern 
Swiss Republic was the "League of the Three Communities," i. e., the 
men of Uri, the community of Schwyz, and the mountaineers of the 
little valle} r which subsequently became part of the Canton of Unter- 
walden.". 

In the thirteenth century the Hapsburg family of the Canton of 
Aargau had risen to power, and in 1273 Rudolph of Hapsburg was 
raised to the Imperial Throne of the Holy Roman Empire. Upon his 
death the "League of the Three Communities 1 ' was formed in 1201 
for the purpose of protection against the arbitrary power of the bailiffs, 

« "The Swiss Confederation," by Adams & Cunningham. 

67 



68 

or middlemen, and not for the purpose of renouncing allegiance to the 
Emperor. In 1352 the confederation was increased to eight States, and 
in 1513 it was composed of thirteen cantons. 

In 1798 France sent troops into Switzerland, and finally in 1803 
\ Bonaparte gave the country a new constitution called "The act of 
mediation." The fall of Napoleon overthrew his work; but in 1815 the 
perpetual neutrality of Switzerland and the inviolability of her terri- 
tory were guaranteed by Austria, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia, and 
Russia. 

A federal pact drawn up at Zurich in 1815 was accepted b} T the Con- 
gress of Vienna, and remained in force until 1848. In that year a 
federal constitution for the whole of Switzerland was adopted, the 
| first which had been framed without foreign influence. The men who 
drafted that constitution had carefully studied the Constitution of 
the United States; but they recognized the importance of working out 
details to meet their own needs, and the difficult work was most sue-' 
cessfully accomplished. 

Two legislative ckambers were for the first time created — the national council, to 
which deputies were elected proportionally to the population, thus favoring the 
larger cantons, and representing the Swiss people as a whole; and the council of the 
States, which resembled the American Senate, each canton, large or small, contrib- 
uting two members. The two chambers constituted the Federal Assembly, and an 
executive power was created called the Federal Council, which consisted of seven 
members." 

The constitution was again amended in 1874, and that constitution 
now remains in force and effect. 

No American can visit Switzerland and study its conditions, either 
political, social, or military, without finding much that is of interest 
and value. The marked democratic characteristics of the people and 
the earnestness and interest with which they are working out some of 
the great social problems of the day should receive the most careful 
study by us. It is not necessary here to refer in detail to the working 
of the initiative and referendum, to their action in regard to the State- 
ownership of railroads, nor pensions for old age. The purpose of 
this paper is to describe how this country has worked out its military 
problems. 

If proof were needed that a land can train all its citizens for the 
efficient and intelligent performance of that work which must be done 
when war comes, and at the same time escape the evils of what is to-day 
called militarism, that proof can be found in the Republic of Switzer- 
land. A republic with the strongest democratic tendencies, with a 
constitution not unlike our own, with intense local pride and cherished 
local traditions, with an inbred conviction that the central authority 
must not unduly encroach upon the rights of the cantons, with a worthy 
love of peace and its blessings, without the slightest thought of adding 
a foot to their territory, but with an intense love of country and a 
cheerful willingness to perform every duty which their citizenship 
entails, they have evolved and developed a military system which has 
given them the best militia in the world. It is of the greatest interest 
to us that in organizing this splendid body of "citizen soldiers" they 
have worked along the lines laid down by the men who framed the 
Constitution of the United States. 

"The Swiss Confederation, by Adams and Cunningham. 



69 

The rights of the cantons to name the officers who are to be com- 
missioned, a right which was reserved to the State by our Constitution, 
exists to-day in Switzerland, subject to the limitation of proved 
efficiency and fitness. 

The organization and discipline of the Swiss militia is under Federal 
control in Switzerland, just as is prescribed by our Constitution; the 
universal military service still remains a theory with us, but in Switz- 
erland it is real and actual. But one striking difference separates their 
methods from ours; for over a hundred y ears we have failed to pass 
any laws or take any action in Congress for improving and developing 
our citizen soldiers; Switzerland, on the contrary, has profited by 
experience, and has made its mistakes or shortcomings the stepping- 
stones to better conditions; it has carefully and conservatively changed 
for the better, by repeated legislative enactments, the organization, the 
equipment, and training of the militia, until to-day the most compe- 
tent officers from all over the world pay cheerful tribute to its high 
excellence. This is due in a large measure to the fact that invasion 
by a foreign foe is considered by the Swiss a danger which they must 
be prepared to meet. 

They believe firmly that an armed force is necessary to make real 
the guaranty which other nations have given of the neutrality of its 
soil. 

When France and Germany were at war in 1870, the Swiss Govern- 
ment was officially asked what they proposed to do if a force from 
either country attempted to march through Switzerland, and the 
answer was given that the Swiss militia would be on the frontier ready 
to oppose their advance. In 1871 a French army under the command 
of General Bourbaki, consisting of over 83,000 men, retreated toward 
the Swiss frontier. The militia was on the frontier, and General 
Bourbaki was informed that the Swiss were prepared to maintain the 
neutrality of their territory, and that his troops could only come on 
to Swiss soil provided they laid down their arms. These conditions 
were accepted, and the army gave up 284 guns, 63,212 rifles, 1,500 
wagons, and 10,619 horses, and officers and men remained in Switzerland 
until peace was established between France and Germany. 

For the American who studies the Swiss military system its most 
surprising feature will be, not the obligation of universal military 
service, for this exists in theory in America and is practically a prin- 
ciple of universal application, but the thoroughness and completeness 
with which the Swiss have worked out all the details necessary to 
enable the militia to take the field at an hour's notice, equipped and 
readjr for the defense of the fatherland. 

In America and in England there has always been a marked tendenc} 7 
to leave until the very last moment the settlement of many questions 
connected with the organization of the forces, and in these two 
countries it has sometimes happened that the existing forces were 
not adequately equipped in time of peace to take the field. We 
have accustomed ourselves to believe that this is a distinctive trait 
of democracies, and that complete preparation for war during peace 
would only be made when a state was dominated by the will of a 
powerful emperor. But in Switzerland we find a country strongly 
permeated with the most advanced principles of democracy, carefully 
arranging every detail of the work which would follow an order to 



70 

mobilize their forces, and recognizing the duty, which democracies 
especially should not try to evade, of protecting their soldiers from 
unnecessary suffering by giving to the Cantonal and Federal forces 
the best possible organization and proper training. 

MILITARY ORGANIZATION. 

The present military organization of the Swiss militia rests upon 
the law of 1874; it should not be overlooked that this law was the 
result of an effort to make certain improvements suggested by the 
practical experience of 1870-71. Unlike the Americans who have 
rarely made any of the changes which actual warfare has proved to be 
necessary, the Swiss are continually correcting those defects made 
plain by their own experience or by that of other countries. It is 
impossible to meet Swiss officers without being struck with the uni- 
versal desire to still further improve their force, and in this desire 
they have the sympathy of the people. 

The Swiss constitution forbids the maintenance of a standing arnry, 
but every citizen is liable to perform military duty from the begin- 
ning of the year in which he becomes 21 years of age until the end of 
the year in which he completes his forty-fourth year. 

Certain officials are excepted from the liability to perform military 
service during the time that they are in office, such as members of the 
Bundesrath, or Federal Council, officials and employees of the postal 
and telegraph service, and others connected with the administrative 
work of the Government; officials of hospitals and prisons, members 
of the police force of the Cantons and the revenue service, and fron- 
tier guards, clergymen, and teachers. 

Officials and employees of the railroad and steamship companies are 
relieved from service which will interfere with the proper running of 
trains or boats, but all of these persons who are physically fit for serv- 
ice must go through a course of instruction for recruits and are 
allotted to some military unit. Any man who, by a judgment of the 
court, has been deprived of any of his rights or honors as a citizen is 
not permitted to bear arms. 

The members of the Bundesversammlung or Federal Assembly are 
only exempted from military duty while the Houses are in session. 

The militia, or as it may be called, the arm}', is divided into the 
Auszug or Elite, the Landwehr, and the Landsturm. 

RECRUITING. 

The territory of the Federation is, in accordance with the law of the 
13th of November, 1871, divided into eight divisions. The infantry 
battalions, the squadrons of dragoons, the field and mountain batteries, 
and the companies of position artillery are known as troops of the 
cantons, and arc recruited territorially. The other units are recruited 
by the Federation without regard to territorial limits. There is, there- 
fore, this distinction in the army, that certain troops are known as 
troops of the cantons, and others as troops of the Federation. For 
the purpose of recruiting the infantry battalions in the Auszug, or 
Elite, the cantons are divided into recruiting districts in such a man- 
ner that each district supplies at least one and not more than three 
battalions. 



71 

The decision as to which men are physically fit for service is, in 
accordance with the law, left to a commission constituted for this pur- 
pose. Nobody can be admitted to any of the military organizations 
who does not possess every necessary qualification. The cavalry horses 
are purchased by the Federation, are trained at the remount depots, 
and upon the purchase, as elsewhere explained, by the recruit, each 
horse becomes the property of the man who bivys him. In allotting 
the recruits to the different arms, the size and keenness of sight of the 
recruits are considered. Men of the keenest sight are put into the 
artillery and in the detachments handling the machine guns; the small- 
est men are selected for the cycling corps; the largest go into the 
artillery. A man who reaches the age for the performance of military 
service must report at the proper time at the designated place in the 
Canton in which he resides and, as a rule, he is equipped, assigned to 
his arm, and instructed there. All these details are governed by law, 
which it is the duty of the commanding officers of the various troops 
to have strictly complied with. 

The division of the Swiss army into the various classes of Auszug, 
Landwehr, and Landsturm is a matter of age. For the first twelve 
years a man is in the Auszug; that is, from 20 until 32; from his 
thirty-third to his forty-fourth year he is in the Landwehr. The 
Landwehr is divided into two classes, the first consisting of the men 
from 33 to 40 years of age, and the second of those from 40 to 44. 
The exceptions to this rule are as follows: Noncommissioned officers 
and soldiers of the cavahy leave the Auszug and enter the Landwehr 
at the end of ten years' service. This is because in the cavalry a man 
has to perform a certain amount of service every } 7 ear, while in the 
infantry it is only every other 3 7 ear. All officers are liable to perform 
service in the Auszug or Landwehr until the completion of their forty- 
eighth year, which is four years longer than in the case of privates. 

Staff officers can be detailed to dut} T either in the Auszug or the 
Landwehr at any time. Captains of all arms of the service ma} 7 be 
retained in the Auszug until the completion of their thirty-eighth year. 
All officers enter the Landwehr on the completion of their thirty-fourth 
year. In the field post, and telegraph service staff, officers serve until 
48 years old, other officers until 44, and noncommissioned officers and 
soldiers until 39. In time of war, or when war is threatened, the 
Federal Assembly has the right to change the time in which officers 
and men pass from the Auszug into the Landwehr. In time of war 
the Auszug can be reenforced from the Landwehr and the Landsturm. 

LANDSTURM. 

Every citizen who is capable of bearing arms, and who has not been 
incorporated in the Auszug or Landwehr, is liable to service in the 
Landsturm from the completion of his seventeenth year until the end 
of his fiftieth year. Volunteers under 17 or over 50 may also be incor- 
porated in the Landsturm. 

Exceptions similar in character to those specified for the Auszug or 
Landwehr are made in the case of service in the Landsturm. 

A very careful physical examination is made of all citizens when 
they reach a suitable age for service, and only those are permitted 
to enter the Auszug who are physically capable of performing military 
service. 



72 

All who are rejected must pa} r an annual tax, which in no instance 
is less than 6 francs, and which increases with the wealth of the indi- 
vidual up to the sum of 3,000 francs, which is the maximum. 

The federal army includes, with the general staff and the statf of 
the separate subdivisions of the force, infantry, cavalry, artillery, 
engineers, medical troops, and administration troops. 

CAVALRY. 

The way in which the cavalry is supplied with horses is of especial 
interest. A man wishing to serve in the cavalry must bring a certificate 
from an official of his commune setting forth that he is financially able 
to buy and take care of a horse, or he must bring from responsible per- 
sons a guaranty that the necessary charges and expenses will be paid. 

The horses which are bought by the Government for the use of the 
cavalry are valued by a commission of the chief veterinary officers of 
the Federation, the chief of cavalry, and the chief instructor of cavalry. 
The cavalryman buying a horse pays one-half the sum thus set as the 
value of the horse and receives each year from the Government one- 
tenth of the sum so paid, so that at the end of ten years he has received 
back all that he has paid and is the owner of the horse. 

Let us say that a horse has been valued at $250; the recruit who 
wishes this horse pays to the Government $125 cash, and every year 
for ten years receives one-tenth of the amount, or $12.50. 

When not engaged in military service, he takes the horse to his 
home, and is permitted to use him for riding, driving, or working. 
The cavalry is now a very popular arm of the service. The manifest 
advantages of this system are apparent. 

As the Government is very careful in its selection of horses to get 
strong, serviceable animals, the quality of horses throughout the coun- 
try is steadily improving. The value of the cavalry soldier is increased 
by the fact that his horse is with him the entire year, and there is in 
consequence that mutual understanding between the rider and his 
horse which adds so much to the efficienc} r of a cavalry force. As the 
man loses the value of the horse, if any harm results from improper 
care or neglect, he has every inducement to see that the horse receives 
the best possible treatment, and instruction in the proper care and 
management of horses is given to all the cavalry. 

Horses for the artillery are hired when wanted. They are valued 
by a commission at the time the}^ enter the service. When the service 
is ended they are again valued, and the owner receives in addition to 
the hire of the horse the difference, if any, between the two valua- 
tions. If at the end of his service a horse is sick, he is kept by the 
Government until well, the owner receiving the stipulated price dur- 
ing this time for the hire of the horse. When entirely well he is 
returned. If the horse dies, the owner receives the amount at which 
the horse was valued. 

SELECTION OF OFFICERS AND NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS. 

The law carefulty provides for the way in which officers and non- 
commissioned officers are selected. No noncommissioned officer is 
selected except after the successful completion of the courses and 
schools which are arranged for the instruction of candidates for such 
positions. 



73 

In order to be commissioned as an officer, the following conditions 
must be complied with: 

In the infantry a man must have been a noncommissioned officer, 
and as such must have successfully completed the work of a recruit 
school. In the cavalry a man must, as noncommissioned officer, have 
been through a noncommissioned officers' or recruit school, or a repe- 
tition course. Similar conditions are provided for commissions in the 
artilleiy, engineers, and medical department, with such additional 
requirements appropriate to the arm of the service. The selection as 
officer with the troops of the canton is made by the military authori- 
ties of the canton; for troops of the Federation, by the Federal coun- 
cil. In every instance a certificate of fitness, based upon the compliance 
with the above conditions, is a necessary preliminaiy. 

To become a first lieutenant it is necessary that as second lieutenant 
a man should have met the following requirements: In the infantry 
he should have completed one school of target practice, one recruit 
school, and two repetition courses; in the cavalry he should have com- 
pleted one recruit school and three repetition courses; in the artillery 
one recruit school and two repetition courses; in the engineers one 
recruit school, one repetition course, and one special school, either 
for the technical instruction in his arm or a school in target practice; 
in the medical corps he must be qualified as an apothecary and must 
have served two years as lieutenant; in the veterinary school he must 
have completed one recruit school and one repetition course of the 
administration troops. He must have served as lieutenant for two 3^ears. 

Corresponding requirements are necessary in order to be promoted 
from first lieutenant to captain. 

FOREIGN SERVICE OF SWISS OFFICERS. 

Reference has been made elsewhere to the fact that one of the Swiss 
officers, whom I had the pleasure of meeting, was a graduate of West 
Point. But beside the advantage which would result from such occa- 
sional instances as this, the Swiss Government has arranged with the 
German Government to have Swiss officers attached for a year at a 
time to some German military organization. The officers so selected 
are never of high rank, and it is needless to say that the selections are 
so made as to insure a worthy and able representative of their country, 
and a welcome addition to the organization which they join. The 
benefit derived from this plan is not the chance to imitate, but the 
increased knowledge which the officers bring back regarding methods 
of work, a knowledge which helps the Swiss to decide whether there 
is reason for change or improvement in their own methods. 

INSTRUCTION. 

The military law provides that the cantons must see to it that the 
young men from ten years upward are given regular gymnastic 
instruction which will prepare them for the military service. The 
Federal authorities do not closely watch the work of the cantons in 
respect to the carrying out of this law, but they supply instructors, and, 
as a matter of fact, it is very generally complied with fully and com- 
pletely. The recruit schools, which are the time which the recruit 
spends in his first instruction, are used for the instruction of officers. 
The repetition courses, which are the time which the privates spend in 



74 

.service after their first year, are in the same way used for the instruc- 
tion of officers. Two hundred and thirty-three officers aje perma- 
nently in service as instructors, and they are detailed to attend the 
recruit schools and the repetition courses for the purpose of giving 
instruction and criticising the work of officers and men. They are 
officers of the Federation, and are paid a fixed sum annually. 

THE GENERAL STAFF. 

Every country which has developed its armed force along practical 
and scientific lines, has found it necessary to have a general staff, 
and all countries have, to a greater or less degree, imitated the 
organization of the German general staff. In his book on The Serv- 
ice of the General Staff, Gen. Bronsard von Schellendorff has described 
the growth and development of the general staff and has pointed 
out that it is the logical result of the growth and development of 
armies. Perhaps the most striking difference between the modern 
armies and the righting forces of former times is to be found in the 
fact that the modern army requires an amount of administrative work 
which, in magnitude, stands nearly on an equality with that of the great 
industrial and commercial business enterprises of the world, but whose 
importance is far greater, because any defect in the wa}' in which 
this work is carried out results not merely in the loss of money, as is 
the case in any business, but in the needless loss of life. 

According to the modern science of war, a commanding general has 
an amount of mental responsibility in formulating his plans for cam- 
paign and battle, which must be a task requiring all of any man's 
mental, nervous, and physical strength. In order, therefore, that a 
general ma} 7 be free to perform in the best and most successful man- 
ner his arduous work, he must have helpers upon whose knowledge 
and ability he can rely implicitly. Naturally, in order to have a body 
of officers who can render this service to commanding generals in such 
a way that they can depend absolutely upon these officers for the 
needed assistance, it is essential that they should have that training 
and experience which will fit them for their work. When one sees the 
thoroughness with which Switzerland has worked out all the details of 
its military organization, it follows, almost as a matter of course, that 
we .should find a thoroughly educated and carefully organized general 
staff. 

Colonel Keller, chief of the Swiss general staff, had the kindness, in 
response to a request for information on the subject, to prepare a most 
interesting and valuable paper on the organization and work of the 
general staff'. This paper tells so clearly what the general staff is that 
his consent was obtained to print it and a translation follows. The 
following brief reference to the subject is based upon Colonel Keller's 
paper. 

In reading Colonel Keller's paper the wide scope of the work which 
is under the charge of the general staff will be noted, and the impor- 
tance of careful study of these matters by trained officials will be 
apparent to everyone. 

The officers of the general staff are charged, among other things, 
with the duty of preparing all orders necessary for the mobilization 
of the Swiss army; they must study all problems connected with the 
national defense; they must obtain all possible information in regard 



75 

to the organization and efficienc}^ of foreign armies; they must decide 
what arms the Swiss troops should have, and make the necessary rec- 
ommendations in regard to the supply of all war material. They are 
responsible for the tactics and instruction of the troops, and prepare 
all plans for the maneuvers; they prepare maps of Switzerland; they 
work out all the military problems connected with the use of railroads 
and steamboats, and they organize the field postal service. 

The officers of the general staff are chosen by the Federal Council 
from officers of any arm of the service who have successfully passed the 
general staff school 1 for the training of general staff officers and who 
have been recommended by their superior officers. The course of 
instruction in the " general staff school l 11 for first lieutenants and cap- 
tains who desire to enter the general staff lasts six weeks, including two 
weeks " staff ride. 11 When selected for the general staff, an officer 
must attend the "general staff school 2," the duration of which is six 
weeks. This course is a continuation of the course given in the general 
staff school 1 and forms part of the theoretical instruction required for 
service on the general staff. During the year following his appoint- 
ment a staff officer must pass through a further course, known as 
"school 3," during which time he receives instruction connected with 
the practical work of troops in the field and in military geography. 

In addition* to this work an officer must attend the recruit schools 
and repetition courses prescribed b}^ law for the other arms of the 
service than the one to which he originally belonged, and thus an 
infantry officer gets service with the cavalry and artillery, an artillery 
officer with the infantry and cavalry, and a cavalry officer with the 
infantry and artillery. At the expiration of four } T ears 1 service on 
the general staff an officer must return to the line. The question of 
the readmission of an officer to the general staff is decided by the 
military department at the suggestion of the chief of general staff. 
General staff "school 4" is a practical course for the training of the 
higher general staff officers. The chiefs of staff of army corps and 
of divisions are admitted to this school and instruction is given in 
strategical operations. The course usually lasts from two to three 
weeks and takes place every two years. 

The officers of the railway division of the general staff are chosen 
from prominent railway officials. No previous course of instruction is 
required in their case, but after their selection for the staff, they have 
to undergo a fortnight's training in the work of their division. The 
higher officers of this division must, later on, go through a fortnight's 
course which is a continuation of the first. 

In addition to the other requirements for promotion in the general 
staff, there are the following requirements in regard to length of 
service: 

In order to become a major an officer must have served at least five 
years as a captain; in order to become a lieutenant-colonel an officer 
must have served five years as a major, and in order to become a colo- 
nel an officer must have served six years as a lieutenant-colonel. 

The importance of careful training is fully recognized, and it is a 
prerequisite of appointment and promotion in the staff that an officer 
should have finished with success the required courses of -instruction. 

The system by which Switzerland commands the services of all its 
citizens enables it to secure a higher degree of efficiency in all lines of 
scientific work than is possible in a country where only a limited number 

14590—03 6 



76 

of the citizens volunteer their services. The engineers and the medical 
corps are striking examples of this, and without materially interfering 
with the work of the individual in the practice of his profession, it 
brings into the service of the State the ablest men in the country. 
This inevitably results in the maintenance of the highest possible 
standards of efficiency and merit, and the military forces and the 
country both reap the benefits which flow from this. 

Following is a translation of the paper on the organization of the 
Swiss general staff which Colonel Keller had the kindness to prepare 
for me: 

Notes on lln' organization of the Sunss general staff. 

1. PROVISIONS OF LAW GOVERNING THE ORGANIZATION OF THE GENERAL STAFF. 

The Federal law of November 13, 1874, which provides for the military organiza- 
tion of the country, forms the basis of the organization of the general staff, as well 
as the entire system of defense. 

This law specifies all the duties of the general staff in time of peace in articles 74, 
75, and 250, which are as follows: 

"Articles 74 and 250. In time of peace the chief of the general staff is at the head 
of the staff, and upon him devolves, in accordance with special regulations, the or- 
ganization of the different departments, the personnel, and the instruction of the 
staff. He has charge of the military archives and scientific collections, and super- 
vises the topographical survey of the country and the topographical (department. 

"Article 75. With the assistance of the necessary number of general staff officers, 
the chief of the general staff directs and carries out all preparations for placing the 
army in the field and for its movements, and collects and works out the various 
methods of raising armies, as well as all scientific works in regard to the Swiss and 
foreign armies." 

By a decision of the Federal council on December 12, 1879, the charge of the 
topographical department was transferred to the then chief of the engineer corps in 
consequence of the death of the former chief of the general staff. The topographical 
department has thus been under the charge of the chief of the engineer corps up to 
the present time and forms an independent branch of the military administration. 
Arrangements are being made to separate the topographical department from the 
engineer corps and to place it under the immediate jurisdiction of the military 
department. 

A. The organization of the general staff has been determined by various decrees 
of the Federal council, as well as by orders issued from time to time by the military 
department, and by an order issued in 1897 by the Federal council, which is 
confidential: 

The general staff is organized as follows: 

I. Chief of the general staff. 

II. The secretary's office, with 1 principal secretary (in charge); 1 secretary, first 
class; 4 secretaries, second class; 1 attendant. 

III. Five chiefs of departments, viz, chief of the intelligence department, chief of 
the general staff department, chief of the mobilization department, chief of the geo- 
graphical department, chief of the railway department. 

The division of the work, as provided by the regulation of 1897, is, briefly, as 
follows: 

I. CHIEF OF THE GENERAL STAFF. 

The chief of the general staff is in charge of all schools and instruction courses, 
reconnoissance work, and of all the work of the above different departments, as well 
a- of ali other instruction courses which are under the general staff (railway service, 
territorial and etappen service, field, post, field telegraph, and cycle corps). 

lie instructs in strategy and in other branches which he selects. 

He has the entire management of the work of the offices of the general staff as 
well as the individual work of general staff officers when not in service. He for- 
wards all his proposals in regard to organization, instruction, war supplies, defense 
of the country, communications, etc., direct to the Swiss military department. He 
determines, with the consent of the military department, the distribution and 
employment of general staff officers, and manages all matters having reference to 



77 

the staff of employees in the general staff corps. He directs all purchases for the 
military library and for the collection of maps. 

He is an ex officio member and adviser of the national defense committee. 

II. THE SECRETARY'S OFFICE. 

The chief secretary supervises the work of the office assistants and of the attendant. 

He attends to the accounts and disbursements of the office and has charge of the 
military library. The first and second secretaries perform the office work allotted 
to them. For each department of the general staff a secretary is assigned for special 
work. 

III. CHIEFS OF DEPARTMENTS. 

The five chiefs of departments perform the duties assigned to them by the chief of 
the general staff, and on their own initiative do all work belonging to their depart- 
ment. They give instruction and supervise the work of those officers who are provi- 
sionally detailed to perform work in the general staff. In the schools and courses 
under the charge of the general staff they officiate as instructors in the various sub- 
jects, viz, general tactics ; leading of troops, general staff work, military topography 
and reconnoissance, fortification, military geography, war history, and the service in 
rear of the army, including railway communication and administration service. 

The following are the principal duties performed by these five departments: 

I. Preparation and working out of the mobilization orders of the Swiss army. 

II. Matters in connection with national defense. 

III. The study of foreign armies. 

IV. Telegraph and signal service, carrier pigeons, the adoption of secret codes, 
balloon service, and military photography. 

V. Fortifications. 

VI. Supplying of arms and war material for the Swiss army. 

VII. Duties of the general staff and of the different members of the staff. 

VIII. Territorial service, and supplies of reserve. 
IX Military cycle corps. 

X. General tactics, instruction of troops, and maneuvers. 

XI. Military geography and preparation of map. 

XII. Martial law, and war history. 

XIII. Railway and steamboat services. 

XIV. Communication and transportation service. 

XV. Field post, 

The general staff, in accordance with article 247 of the military law, forms the 
administrative department of the military service. The chief of the general staff, as 
well as the chiefs of the four arms and the remaining departmental chiefs, is under 
the direct control of the chief of the military department. He acts in cooperation 
with the chiefs of the four arms in personal matters, and in transfers from the line to 
the general staff, and vice versa, the chief of the general staff advises the military 
department after having previously conferred with the respective chiefs of the four 
arms. 

B. — Organization <</' the topographical department. 

The following officials are under the control of the chief of the engineer corps in 
his capacity as chief, for the time being, of the topographical department: 
First topographer (deputy chief). 
Second topographer. 

Secretary and manager of the map department. 
The office is divided as follows: 

I. The land-survey department, under the management of the second topographer, 
with 9 engineer assistants. 

II. The topographical department, under the first topographer, with 10 engineer 
assistants. 

III. Drawing office, with chief and 6 assistants. 

IV. Engraving department, with 1 chief, 2 engravers, and various assistants. 

V. Lithographic department, with 3 assistants. 

VI. Photographic reproduction, with 1 photographer and 2 assistants. 

VII. Secretary's office and map department, with secretary and 5 assistants. 
Total of staff, 50 to 60 officials and assistants. 

The map printing is intrusted to private firms. 



78 

2. GENERAL STAFF CORPS AND RAILWAY DEPARTMENT. 

A. — Legal provisions for its composition and present composition of same. 

The military organization act of 1874, in article 70, says: 

' ' A separate corps shall be formed for service in the general staff which shall consist, 
independently of the railway section, of 3 colonels, 16 lieutenant-colonels, or majors, 
and 35 captains; total, 54 officers." 

In regard to the railway department of the general staff article 72 states: 

"A special division of the general staff shall be chosen from the executive officers 
and the directors of railways. The duty of these officers in time of peace is to 
arrange the work of the railways to be carried out during time of war, and to 
arrange for the necessary destruction and restoration of the railways in war time. On 
the outbreak of war these officers are subject to the orders of the railway department." 

In consequence of the various changes in the organization since 1874, and particu- 
larly owing to the law passed in 1891 in reference to the formation of army corps, an 
increase in the composition of the general staff, especially in the higher grades, was 
necessary, and consequently in June, 1900, the following officers composed the gen- 
eral staff: 

A. General staff corps — 12 colonels, 15 lieutenant-colonels, 9 majors, and 31 cap- 
tains; total, 67 officers. 

B. Railway department — 1 colonels, 12 lieutenant-colonels, 10 majors, and 19 cap- 
tains; total, 45 officers. 

Officers of the general staff are assigned to duty as follows: To army staff, 5 colonels, 
3 lieutenant-colonels; total, 8 officers. From these in 1900 1 colonel is commander 
ad interim of a brigade of infantry, and 1 colonel is commander ad interim of a regi- 
ment of artillery. 

To each army corps staff, 1 colonel as chief of staff, 1 lieutenant-colonel or major 
as second general staff officer; 1 major or captain as third general staff officer; total, 
12 officers; and also 1 officer of railway department. 

To each division staff, 1 lieutenant-colonel as chief of staff, 1 captain as second 
chief staff officer; total, 16 officers. 

To each brigade of infantry, 1 major or captain; total, 20 officers. 

At the fortresses of St. Gothard and St. Maurice: St. Gothard, 2, and St. Maurice 
1 officer; total, 3 officers. 

Not detailed, but available: 3 colonels, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 4 captains; total, 8 
officers. 

Total of staff, 67 officers. 

The officers of the railway division of the general staff are detailed to the different 
offices and departments of the staff. 

One officer is detailed to each army corps staff. 

B. — Article 71 of the military organization act lays down the following conditions for 

entering the general staff: 

The officers of the general staff are chosen by the Federal Council from those 
officers in any arm of the service who are proposed either by the senior instructor, 
chiefs of the four arms, or by the commanding officer of divisions, and who have suc- 
cessfully passed the first school of training for the general staff. The course of 
instruction in the first general staff school for senior lieutenants and captains who 
desire to enter the general staff must, according to article 98 of the military organi- 
zation act, last ten weeks, including a general staff ride of two weeks. 

Since 1894 the school has been divided into two sections, the instruction being 
given during two successive years; the first part (School 1 A) lasting six weeks, the 
second part (School 1 B) lasting four weeks, of which periods one week in each year 
is devoted to the staff ride. 

The officers who wish to attend the general staff School 1 A are first proposed by 
their chiefs of the four arms and the senior instructors, as well as by the senior com- 
manders of troops. They must have passed through the central School I for lieuten- 
ants and senior lieutenants, as well as being, so far as possible, thoroughly capable 
of commanding a unit of their arm of the service. 

After having successfully passed the general staff School 1 B the Federal Council 
then nominates the candidate as a general staff officer. 



79 

C. — Instruction of general staff officers during the first four years of their time of service on 

the general staff. 

The newly appointed general-staff officers must first of all attend the general staff 
School II, which, in accordance with clause 98 of the military organization act, must 
last six weeks, including a ride with the general staff. 

This course is a continuation of the instruction given in the general staff School I, 
and forms a part of the theoretical education required for service on the general staff. 

A successful completion of the general staff School II is absolutely necessary for 
subsequent promotion in the general staff. In the following year general staff officers 
have to pass through a further course (Course III), consisting of a three weeks' ride 
(march out) for the purpose of practical study. The object of these rides is to gain 
experience in practical work and in military geography. Officers from the different 
branches of the service are admitted to the general staff Schools II and III so long 
as there is sufficient room for them. 

According to article 100 of the military organization act, general staff officers are 
also required, during the first period of service on the general staff, to attend the 
recruit schools and repetition courses of those branches of the army other than the 
branch to which they are themselves attached. An officer, therefore, who has been 
in the infantry must serve in the cavalry and artillery, and vice versa, in order to 
become acquainted with the duties of these branches. As far as possible general 
staff officers must also attend the engineering schools and courses. Those officers 
who, at the time of their appointment as captain on the general staff, have not com- 
pleted their instruction as commanding officer in their particular branch must make 
good the deficiency as soon as possible. 

General staff officers attached to the staffs of brigades, divisions, and corps take 
part in the practice of the troops of their arm of the service, as well as in the instruc- 
tion courses which are held for the higher officers of army corps to which they are 
attached. 

According to article 99 of the military organization act, general staff officers are, 
during the winter, instructed in the work of the different departments in the general 
staff bureau. They are attached to a department of the general staff bureau, and 
have to perform, under the guidance of the chief of that department, the various 
duties assigned to the general staff bureau. This course of bureau instruction usually 
lasts several weeks. The officers wear during this time, like the permanent staff of 
the bureau, civilian clothes. 

D. — The return of general staff officers to the line. 

The necessity of sending general staff officers back to the line after a few years is 
recognized in the Swiss army, as it has been in most other armies, in order to give 
them opportunity of commanding troops. 

A decree of the Federal Council, dated March 20, 1895, was issued, viz: 

" 1 . General staff officers must return to the line at the expiration of four years after 
their entering the general staff. 

"2. The question of officers being readmitted to the general staff corps is decided 
by the military department on the recommendation of the chief of the general staff." 

An order published on January 20, 1896, provides that the chief of the general staff 
shall put himself in communication with the various chiefs of the four arms with a 
view to making arrangements for the return of staff officers to the line. In accord- 
ance with this regulation, when the various promotions and transfers of officers take 
place at the end of each year, those general-staff officers whose period of four years' 
service on the general staff expires at the same time (that is, at the end of that par- 
ticular year) are sent back to the line. 

E. — The question of readmission to the general staff and the further instruction courses in 

connection therewith. 

Those former general-staff officers, who, in the opinion of their superiors, prove 
themselves suitable for higher appointments on the general staff (as chiefs of staffs, 
junior staff officers of army corps, etc. ) are readmitted on the general staff after they 
have finished the period of service in the line which they had to go through on the 
expiration of their four years' service on the staff corps. 

On their return to the general staff they must first of all take part in the various 
courses and exercises of that branch of the army to which they are detailed. 



80 

They are then, as a rule, required t<> do general staff ride III, reconiioisBance, and 
departmental work. 

The general-staff Course IV, which is a practical course, forms a spesial course for 
higher general-staff officers, to which chiefs of staffs, of army corps, and divisions are 
admitted, and in which instruction in strategical operations is given. This course 
usually lasts from two to three weeks, and takes place every two years. 

Higher general-staff officers are frequently required to act as instructors of various 
courses. At the autumn maneuvers several higher general-staff officers, forming a 
"historical section," arc instructed to work out the historical part of the maneuvers, 
while others act as umpires and in similar capacities. 

F. — Instruction <>/' officers <>/' the railway division, and for other schools and courses attached 

tn the general staff. 

The officers of the railway division are chosen from those permanent railway offi- 
cials whose ] irol'essional duties make their services of value for this work. They are 
appointed by the Federal council on the proposal of the chiefs of the general staff. 
No previous instruction course is inquired of them, but after their admittance to the 
general staff they have to undergo a fortnight's course. 

Higher officers of the railway division must, later on, again go through a fortnight's 
course, which forms a continuation of the first course. Railway officers are only sent 
back to service in the line when their position in the civil railway service, which was 
the reason of their being placed on the military railway staff, has undergone a con- 
siderable change. 

Officers of the railway division, like officers of the general staff, have also to perform 
the work of the various departments of the general-staff office, where they deal 
specially with all matters relating to the railway division of the general staff. 

Officers of the railway division also attend the annual territorial and "Etappen" 
courses. These courses last about eighteen days, and officers are instructed in their 
duties at the rear and in the various duties of their particular branch. The instruc- 
tion is given by the division chiefs of the general staff. 

The general staff has also charge of the instruction of the field post and field tele- 
graph officers, for whom instruction courses, lasting about two weeks, are arranged 
as required. A few field post and field telegraph officers also go through territorial 
and "Etappen" courses. Finally, the instruction of the military cyclists' corps is 
intrusted to the general staff. A division chief of the general staff has command of 
the recruit schools, noncommissioned officers' schools, and repetition courses of 
military cyclists. 

3. ADVANCEMENT AND CONDITIONS OF SERVICE IN THE GENERAL STAFF, SALARIES, SUPPLY 

OF UNIFORMS, ETC. 

(a) Advancement ami conditions of service. — The following periods of service have to 
be performed to entitle to promotion: 

Promotion to major, five to six years' service as captain. 

Promotion to lieutenant-colonel, five to six years' service as major. 

Promotion to colonel, six to eight years' service as lieutenant-colonel. 

As a rule, officers are given an opportunity to command troops of the line when 
promoted from one grade to a higher grade. 

The conditions of promotion are, on the whole, somewhat more favorable than for 
line officers. On the other hand, general-staff officers have a greater quantity of 
work to perform than officers of the line holding corresponding rank. 

In addition to the schools and courses of the general staff, general-staff officers 
must frequently serve with various branches of the army. Each transfer from one 
company to another imposes upon them the same duties which the officers of these 
respective companies have to perform. 

General-staff officers must also frequently take part in divisional work, reconnois- 
sances, etc. Most general-staff officers are also very active in military matters when 
off duty, and in military clubs and societies, and also do some literary work. 

(b) Salaries. — The pupils in the general-staff school I receive pay at the rate of 7 
francs per day, in accordance with article 218 of the military organization act and 
article 113 of the Swiss administration regulations. 

In all schools of instruction, as well as in departmental work, the general-staff 
officers receive pay according to Table XXIX of the military organization act and in 
accordance with the Federal law of February 21, 1878. 



81 

The following is the scale of pay per day: 

Francs. 

For captains 9 

For majors 11 

For lieutenant-colonels 13 

For colonels 17 

In addition 1 franc per day is paid toward food and 1 to 1.50 francs per day toward 
lodging expenses, if the officers have to provide for their own maintenance. 

In the cavalry schools and instruction courses officers receive, for the use of their 
own horses, a daily allowance, during the autumn maneuvers, rising to 7 francs per 
day and free fodder; also 3.50 francs per day allowance for man service. 

The chief of the general staff, the divisional chiefs, and the permanent secretaries 
receive yearly salaries as Federal officials; a considerable percentage of the general 
staff officers are instruction officers in the different departments and receive annual 
pay. 

(c) Uniforms. — Officers on the general-staff corps wear a dark blue coat with crim- 
son collar, dark maroon trousers with a broad crimson stripe, buttons and embroidery 
showing officer's grade in gold, caps with crimson pompons, Federal cockade, and 
Federal cross in silver. 

The officers of the railway division have black instead of crimson collars on their 
coats; in all other respects their uniform is the same as that of general-staff officers. 

GERMAN GENERAL STAFF. 

It is not necessary here to describe the organization of the German 
army, but the following statement of the requirements necessary in 
order to secure a commission in the army and to become an officer of 
the general staff may be of interest: 

The student who has completed the course in one of the German 
gymnasia so far as to be eligible for admission to the first class is per- 
mitted to take the first army examination, or a student who has com- 
pleted the entire course at one of the cadets' 1 schools is permitted to 
enter the army without examination. 

The student from the gymnasium must pass the examination known 
as the Fahnricht examination — an examination for the position of non- 
commissioned officer. If he has completed the course at the gym- 
nasium which will qualify him for admission to the university, he does 
not have to undergo this examination. These students from the gym- 
nasia and cadets 1 schools are then admitted to the army as privates. 
The candidate for a commission then serves for about five months in 
the army as a private. After that he must spend nine months in a war 
school (Kriegs-schule). He is then eligible to try the examination for 
a commission, and, if successful, after one or two months receives his 
commission as an officer. 

"admission to the general staff. 

In order to be a candidate for admission to the general staff an 
officer must have served at least three years, but more generally the 
length of service before attempting to enter the staff is six or eight 
years. He must first enter, as the result of an examination, the 
Kriegsacademie, or war college. The regimental commander recom- 
mends one, two, or three officers. From these the division commander 
may make a selection, and then the corps commandant makes a final 
selection of those who are to undergo the preliminary examination. 
This is held generally in March or April, at the garrison town where 
are the corps headquarters. 



82 

The examinations are held on the same day at the different corps 
headquarters, and the same questions are asked. An offtcer of the 
general staff is always present at these examinations. The examina- 
tions are such as to make what is known as "cramming" of little 
value. Some months before the examination is held it is announced 
what country and what century will be covered by the questions in 
geography and history. The following examples will illustrate the 
character of these questions, from which it will be seen that the officer 
is expected to have a broad and comprehensive understanding of the 
general principles underlying the subject on which he is to be exam- 
ined. In 1884 the historical question, for the answering which from 
two to three hours was allotted, was as follows: 

Personal and political grounds of the antagonism between Francis I of France and 
Charles V. 

In 1888: 

Reform of the Constitution of the German Empire under Maximilian I, 1495. 

In 1894 the choice of two subjects was given: 

(1) The establishment of the United States of North America. 

(2) What changes occurred in the political relations of Russia, Poland, Sweden, 
and Turkey after the northern war, and what effect did this have upon the other 
European States? 

In 1898 one of the questions was: 

Spanish and English sea power under Philip II of Spain and Queen Elizabeth of 
England? 

In 1899 one of the questions was: 

Prussia; in what condition was it left by Frederick William I to his son? 

In geography in 1881, two hours' written examination, the question 

was: 

The geographical conditions and relations of the English Cape Colony, and its 
political and mercantile interests*? 

In 1886: 

The territory drained by the Congo? 

In 1893: 

The people of the Empire of Germany, viewed with reference to their race, origin, 
and speech? 

In 1894 the choice of two questions: 

(a) The east coast of North America in its relations to the culture and develop- 
ment of the United States? 

(b) The orography and hydrography of North America? 

In 1898: 

(1) The natural frontier of India on the north and northwest; its bearing upon 
the question of defense against an invasion? 

(2) A short description of the territory which will be reached by the Siberian 
railroad when completed; what effect must this railroad have upon commercial 
relations? 

He must also pass either in one foreign language or in mathematics, 
and in questions connected with the manufacture and handling of guns, 
tactics, military, sketching, etc. If he fails he is permitted to try 
again, and there have been cases where officers have tried as many 
as four times, but this is the exception, and a second failure is gen- 
erally the last. Out of 400 or 500 trying these examinations only 



83 

about 130 are selected. The successful candidates then go through 
a three-year course, nine months of each year being spent at the war 
college and three months in practical work with the different arms of 
the service. This work includes what are known as "general staff 
rides," lasting for about three weeks, during which questions of 
strategy, the handling of troops, are worked out by the officers with 
supposed detachments of the various arms. 

The officer then goes back to his regiment, and one of the follow- 
ing records is made in regard to his work, known as the qualification 
record: 

1. He may be recommended for the general staff. 

2. He ma} T be recommended for the higher adjutant's position. 

3. He may be recommended as a teacher in the war schools, or 

4. He may be rated as not qualified for any of these positions. 

He goes back to his regiment for six months, and then out of the 
number who have completed the course about thirty or forty are 
selected for what is called Dienstleistung. These officers are attached 
to the general staff for duty for one } T ear, but they still remain officers of 
their regiments; the period of duty with the general staff' can be 
extended to two years. 

Then, in order to be admitted to the general staff, they must be 
recommended by the chief of the division of the general staff under 
whom they have worked, and out of the entire number perhaps seven 
or ten, the number depending upon the needs of the general staff, are 
selected and appointed as captains in the general staff. They then 
either stay on duty with the general staff in Berlin or go to some com- 
mand for service with the troops as junior general-staff officer. This 
service generally lasts for about three years. They then leave the 
staff and return to the troops as line officers, serving for a year or a 
year and a half. They may then be called back to the general staff, 
serving as staff officer of a division or as senior staff officer in an 
army corps, or during this time they can be attached to the great gen- 
eral staff as chief of a division, or they may he sent back to the troops 
to serve as line officers. 

The great general staff, it may be said in passing, consists of those 
officers of the general staff who are on duty in Berlin, as dintinguished 
from those officers of the general staff who are on duty with the troops. 
Promotions to the position of brigade commander are continually 
made from among those officers who have never been members of the 
general staff, but for all commands from a division up it is usual to 
take an officer from the general staff. This is not only because of his 
special training in the practical and scientific branches of his work, 
but also because the general-staff officers are the only ones who have 
done service in, the line with all the different arms of the service. It 
will be seen that the process by which the officers of the general staff 
are chosen is one which insures the continual sifting out of the very 
best men in both theory and practice. 

At any of the times when an officer leaves the general staff to return 
to the line it is entirely possible that he should be left permanently in 
the line. He has no right or claim to reenter the staff, and his failure 
to attain a high standard in his practical work, or the evidence that he 
was not a successful officer in the field or a competent leader of men, 
might preclude his return to the staff. 

Perhaps the most striking feature of this system is its purely demo- 
cratic character. 



84 

It is a truth acknowledged the world over that an officer to rise to a 
high position in the German general staff must be a man of exceptional 
ability and proved capacity for the responsibilities of command. 

That such a system has been adopted in Germany is of course dne to 
the fact that, from the Emperor down, all are anxious to have the army 
as efficient as possible, and it is an axiom which is equally true in 
empires and republics that if men are appointed for merely personal 
or political reasons to* positions which require exceptional ability, 
thorough training, and long, hard, preliminary work, the practical 
efficiency of the army is inevitably diminished. 

It seems to be a rule of general application that a country only makes 
that preparation for war which the bitter experience of defeat or 
invasion, or the dread of foreign attack, makes the people regard as 
necessary. One sometimes hears it said that Gerinany has foolishly 
and unnecessarily developed its armed strength, but it must not be 
forgotten that it was not until Germany was united and its army made 
powerful and strong that it ceased to be the prey of foreign powers. 
Many a defeat and many an invasion marked the years when German} 1- 
consisted of independent principalities, without anj^ adequate organi- 
zation for their common defense. 

The modern military system in Germany was not adopted because 
one man or a few men forced upon an unwilling people a system which 
they did not approve; it was the result of a patriotic determination on 
the part of the nation to make impossible the recurrence of those 
awful experiences which followed in the train of their former defeats. 
The work of perfecting the military system went hand in hand with 
the development of the system of education. Much as we may deplore 
the conditions of human life which make recourse to war a method 
for settling international disputes, the fact remains that Germany's 
complete preparation for war is to-day one of the strongest influences 
for peace. 

The thoroughness and completeness of Switzerland's preparation is 
undoubtedly due to the belief of the people that if they were not 
adequately prepared to defend themselves they might lose their inde- 
pendence. In England and America no such fear exists. It is doubt- 
ful whether many English people consider invasion possible, and few, 
if any, think of it as probable. The contingency seems to them so 
remote that their action on military matters is not materially influ- 
enced by it. Again, the Anglo-Saxon character concerns itself but 
slightly with what other nations ma} 7 think of the growth and develop- 
ment of their institutions. This to a certain extent is an element of 
strength, but carried too far it may be a source of weakness. In order 
to accomplish in the most effective way the work which falls to it, a 
nation should not only possess the strength necessary to cany through 
its work successfully, but it should have the powerful'muiience which 
comes from a recognition b} 7 other countries of its ability to use effect- 
ively its strength and power. 

England, like America, leaves an enormous amount to be done 
when an emergency arises. There was a time in America when some 
of the militia had no practice in rifle shooting, and after this condition 
had lasted some years the people in some of the States awoke to the 
fact that it was a waste of money to maintain an armed force which 
could aot shoot, and increased facilities were provided to permit the 



85 

men to become efficient with their rifles; but there are many other 
things which are to-day just as important for the success of a righting 
force as the ability to shoot well. In any great war large bodies of 
troops must be speedily mobilized, and they must be properly trained 
and adequate!}' equipped. The men must be kept in the best possible 
health, and this is not only for humanitarian reasons, but because a 
sick man is just as useless as wet powder. 

The health of the Army depends not only on proper sanitation, but 
upon proper feeding. The commissariat and Quartermaster's Depart- 
ment are of the most vital importance, and unless they are able to do 
their work efficiently the strength of a force inevitably suffers. Not 
only should a country be able to supply everything necessary for the 
proper working of these administrative departments, but it should be 
able to do so as soon as the force takes the field. Switzerland sets an 
example of practical common sense in having every halter, every har- 
ness, and every wagon for all its different transport and train services 
in continual readiness to start out at a moment's notice with every unit 
of its righting force. There is little chance that America will ever follow 
this example, but we should certainly make an effort to be somewhat 
nearer a proper state of readiness for action in the future than was 
proved to be the case in 1898. 

ENGINEERS. 

As all the engineers in Switzerland are, like other citizens, liable to 
military duty, the professional ability of the officers of this part of 
the forces is of the highest order. There is practically no problem in 
engineering which the officers of the Swiss militia are not able to solve, 
and the corps is well drilled and instructed in building pontoon and 
permanent bridges. 

The telegraph corps is made up almost entirely of men who are 
practical telegraphists, and when in their military service the}' build 
telegraph lines or send or receive messages, they are but doing that 
work for which their occupation in life trains them. The same is true 
of the pontoniers or bridge builders. 

It will be of interest in America to know that one of the officers 
who is at present an instructor of engineers is a graduate of West 
Point. 

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

The most scientific doctors in Switzerland, some of them men whose 
reputations have made them famous all over Europe, are available for 
the medical department of the Swiss army. 

The instruction which the doctors receive includes a certain amount 
of purely military information, but in addition to this they receive 
from the most distinguished surgeons and physicians in the country 
instruction of a purely medical and scientific nature, and in order to 
retain their commissions or secure promotion must prove by exami- 
nation their medical skill and proficiency. 

Switzerland recognizes that in time of war its supply of hospital 
tents and of hospital attendants would be entirely inadequate. With 
characteristic forethought for the suffering of its citizens it has worked 
out in time of profound peace a system by which its sick and wounded 
soldiers may be spared the overcrowding in hospital tents and the 



86 

inadequate service which the future historians will have to record as 
having- marred the records of a richer but less provident ration. 

Every hotel in Switzerland is available for the use of the hospital 
authorities in time of war. The number of beds, the character of the 
furniture, the sanitary condition of every hotel is known by the med- 
ical authorities, and this record is revised and corrected every four or 
five years to insure its accuracy. 

As it is quite impossible in the organization of any fighting force to 
provide for a number of trained attendants sufficient to meet the 
demands resulting from heavy lighting or grave camp epidemics, this 
contingency is provided for by the organization in every locality of 
branches of the Red Cross Society, whose members voluntarily give 
the time necessary to secure at least a moderate amount of instruction 
and training in the care of the sick and wounded, and there is thus 
insured for the grave crisis of war a large number of persons who, 
under the direction of the medical officers, could render much valua- 
ble aid. 

ADMINISTRATION DIVISION. 

The administration division, as it is called, is charged with preparing 
the meat and bread for the troops in the field. The men in this depart- 
ment are almost entirely butchers and bakers. The} T receive in their 
training" as recruits a certain amount of military instruction sufficient 
to enable them to execute the necessary military movements in detach- 
ments, companies, or battalions. They are taught to set up for use in 
the shortest possible time the ovens in which the bread is to be baked, 
the sheds in which the cattle are to be slaughtered, and the necessary 
buildings or sheds in which the bread and meat arc to be kept before 
it is sent to the designated places for distribution. 

When any body of troops is in the field, the proper number of offi- 
cers and men belonging to the administration division establish their 
plant at some suitable and convenient place which has been selected 
by the general staff. This division has its own train, and the meat and 
bread are conveyed to the designated place of distribution where the}^ 
are turned over to the detachments from the different units, and are 
by them taken to their camp or bivouac. If a force is suddenly 
mobilized, the houses in the adjacent villages would be used for 
baking bread during the first twelve hours. At the end of that time 
the ovens and buildings necessary to supply the troops with meat 
and bread would be ready for use. 

The plant of the administration division consists of an engine, which 
is used in kneading the dough, of the necessary number of sheds and 
buildings for the storage of bread and meat, and of the ovens. When 
the dough is ready for kneading, enough to make bread for 400 men 
is put in a cylinder about 5 feet long and 2£ to 3 feet in diameter. 
This is placed on a small truck, carried to the engine, and when placed 
in position the cylinder revolves, as does a curved iron bar on the 
inside of the cylinder. In ten minutes this dough is kneaded. Jt was 
my privilege to visit the administration division at Rapperswyll, where 
the plant has been established for the maneuvers of 1900. One hun- 
dred and eighty men were on duty there, and they prepared the bread 
and meat rations for 26,000 men a day without the slightest difficulty. 
The maximum capacity of the engine in use was 48,000 rations of bread 
at 1£ pounds each per day. 



87 

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION. 

The physical examination, which is very severe, practically excludes 
about 50 per cent of the population from service in the army. To fail 
in this examination and to be rejected for service is a disappointment 
shared alike by the man, his family, and his friends. When a young- 
man is rejected for physical disability, he pays an annual tax, every- 
one paying- at least 6 francs. The maximum tax is 3,000 francs, or 
$600. The tax is based upon the amount of capital and of income. 
One thousand francs of invested capital is exempted, but beyond this 
every 1,000 francs pays 1\ francs. Six hundred francs of income is 
exempted, and after this every 100 francs of income pays 1^ francs. 
When the recruit first reports for instruction, the course through which 
he passes is known as a recruit school. 

USE OF MAPS. 

Part of the instruction of every private covers the reading and use 
of maps; great importance is attached to this in all arms of the service. 

INSPECTION OF RECRUIT. 

When the recruit joins he is given his uniform and military equip- 
ment; when he goes to his home after completing the recruit school 
or any other military duty, he takes everything with him, and it must 
be in the best possible condition. An inspection of everything is made 
before he leaves for his home; his gun must be in order, all buttons 
must be on his unifrom, and all his equipment must be in a condition 
suitable for immediate use. If on his return to service any injury has 
been done to any part of his equipment, he is personally responsible, 
unless he can prove that the injury was not caused through his fault. 

CAVALRY SERVICE. 

The cavalry are called out during the first ten years of their service 
ten days in each year, and then pass into the Landwehr. The other 
arms of the service are only called out for what are called the repeti- 
tion courses every other year, the time varying in the different arms 
from fourteen to eighteen daj T s. 

RIFLE SHOOTING. 

After the completion of the service in the Auszug, the soldier passes 
into the Landwehr, when he is called out every fourth year for from 
eight to eleven days at a time. During the years when a soldier is 
not passing through a course of instruction, or a repetition course, he 
must shoot at least forty rounds, and this is easily accomplished by the 
fact that everywhere throughout Switzerland there are rifle ranges 
which, although conducted and managed b}^ citizens, are to a certain 
extent under Government supervision. Shooting at these ranges in 
accordance with the prescribed conditions gives the man his annual 
musketry practice near his own home with the least possible incon- 
venience to himself, and under conditions which make it a pleasure 



88 

instead of a task, for the entire nation is intensely interested in rifle 
shooting, very much as our people are interested in baseball. 

RIFLE CLUBS. 

No account of the Swiss military S3^stem would be complete without 
a description of the rifle clubs, which, although not a part of the mili- 
tary s} T stem, yet contribute so much to the efficiency of the Swiss sol- 
dier. An article in the Nineteenth Century for June, 1000, by Col. 
J. H. Rivett Carnac, gives a most excellent and accurate account of 
these clubs. In 1898 there were 3,447 rifle clubs, with 210,504 mem- 
bers. In almost every village throughout the country there is to be 
found a rifle range. If it is impossible to secure a long range, a 
shorter one is accepted. The majority of the ranges are about 400 
meters. Advantage is taken of a hill, wherever possible, as the back- 
ground for the targets. 

The obstacles which in America or England would make the use of 
a range impossible do not seem to count in- Switzerland. For example, 
in a small village not far from Lucerne, where the houses are in a 
narrow valley between two hills, the tiring point is on a hill one side 
of the valley and the targets face it on the opposite hillside. The 
shooting is thus done over the tops of the houses and over the heads 
of all who are passing on the highway, and the condition is accepted 
with perfect satisfaction by everyone, and, so far as I could learn, 
without any accidents. Each rifle club must have at least 10 mem- 
bers. The by-laws of the club have to be sanctioned by the musketry 
officer of the district in which the club is, who, with the members of 
the musketry committee of the battalion of that district, control the 
work. Registers are kept and annual reports submitted. In addition 
to the other officers of the club there is a musketry captain, who is 
specially charged with instruction and with the military side of the 
proceedings. 

Colonel Carnac refers to the calculations made by Colonel Kindler, 
of Zurich, to the effect that the number of cartridges used annually in 
the military courses is 5,000,000. The quantity drawn by the clubs is 
16,000,000, thus leaving 11,000,000 for what may be called civil 
shooting. 

The Government makes the cartridges which are used by the soldiers 
and by the members of the shooting clubs. It loses on each cartridge 
about 3 centimes, or three-fifths of a cent, the object being to sell the 
cartridges at so low a figure as to encourage their generous use by 
citizens. The total loss to the Government for the cartridges thus 
sold to citizens, exclusive, of course, of all cartridges used b}^ soldiers 
in service, is for the modern rifle about 300,000 francs, or $60,000, a 
year, and 20,000 francs, or $4,000, on the cartridges for the old rifles, 
some of which are still used b)^ members of the shooting clubs, and 
12,000 francs, or $2,400, on the cartridges for revolvers. 

TRAINING IS PRACTICAL. 

A striking feature of the training of the Swiss army is the almost 
entire disregard of all phases of military work which are not of 
importance in actual campaigning. No effort is made to give the 
soldiers that appearance which in England is called "smartness," and 



89 

which we describe as u well set up" or u trim." Little instruction is 
given in ceremonies. Hard, practical work, long marches, always in 
full kit, are the rule, and little attention is paid to that mathematical 
precision which our militia regard as so important in their company, 
battalion, or regimental movements. The Swiss officers say the time 
is so short that they are compelled to limit their training to the most 
important matters. 

The Government keeps an ample supply of rough uniforms, which 
are issued to the men for their different schools and courses for the 
maneuvers. Having seen how little attention was paid to the exact 
execution of company movements, it was a surprise at the review which 
followed the maneuvers to see the 26,000 men of all arms of the service 
march past with alignments which would have done credit to the best 
militia organization in the United States and with distances well main- 
tained. The inference seems to be that if a body of men are trained 
to do the hard work that properly falls to a soldier's lot they will be 
able to march well in review without having wasted time in practicing 
this to the exclusion of more important work. 

SPIRIT OF THE PEOPLE. 

In a recent speech made by Lord Salisbury he stated that the strength 
of Switzerland was shown, not in its military organization, but in the 
spirit of its people. This is undoubtedly a profound truth. The won- 
derful results which Switzerland accomplishes — for military experts 
from every corner of the world have paid their hearty tribute to the 
excellence of these results — are due not alone to the fact that every 
citizen is liable to do military duty, not alone to the fact that they 
have carefully devised a plan by which instruction can be given to all 
able-bodied men, but chiefly to the extraordinary spirit which seems to 
be a practical manifestation of patriotism and love of country, a spirit 
which prompts every man, from the new recruit to the oldest colonel 
in the service, to do cheerfully and happily everything in his power 
to make the Swiss force as good as possible. 

At the end of a long day's work I was standing beside a Swiss officer 
looking out over the lake beyond which rose the distant mountains 
glistening in the setting sun. No one could have looked at the quiet 
lake and towering mountains of snow without being stirred by the 
beauty of the scene. To the northeast were the Swiss passes which 
would be of strategic value to Austria; to the north was the German 
frontier; 30,000 Swiss citizens in bivouac and cantonment were pre- 
paring themselves to resist the invader, from whatever direction he 
might come. As we looked toward the distant mountains the officer 
at my side said, partly to himself, "It is a land worth fighting for;" 
and it seemed to me that in those few words was expressed that love of 
country w T hich has given to Switzerland the best militia in the world. 

THE SWISS MANEUVERS OF 1900. 

When the present governor of New York returned to America after 
his military service in Cuba he expressed the opinion that the United 
States should once a year put at least 10,000 or 15,000 troops into 
camp, move them in railroad trains, and transport them on the water, 
for the purpose of getting practical experience in the management of 



90 

camps and movement of troops on land and their proper care while 
traveling - by water. 

This recommendation was the practical and common-sense* conclusion 
which followed personal experience with soldiers in camp, in railroad 
trains, and on transports during our last war. 

It has been well said that if one of our great railroad companies 
should stop running all but afew of its unimportant trains, keeping only 
a small force of men who were theoretically instructed in their duties 
as engineers, firemen, conductors, etc., and if after the lapse of a 
quarter of a century of this limited work and theoretic study the attempt 
should suddenly be made to run express trains on schedule time and to 
handle great quantities of freight, and if important positions were tilled 
witli men who had never given a thought to railroad work, but who 
had been lawyers, merchants, and clerks, it is certain that the first few 
weeks would witness many terrible accidents, the loss of man}'- lives, 
and the destruction of much property. 

What is true of a railroad is equally true of an army in the field, and 
this is especially the case in modern times, when the purely business 
side of all large military operations is of such importance. It is a 
recognition of these plain and simple truths which has led so many 
countries to spend large sums of money on their peace maneuvers. 

In Bronsart v r on Schellendorff's book on the duties of the general 
stall' a chapter is devoted to the subject of "peace maneuvers." In 
his account of the development of peace maueuvers in Prussia he calls 
attention to the fact that the military successes of his country, both 
in the present and in past centuries, have always followed a time when 
maneuvers were considered of the highest importance and when the 
troops were given the most complete opportunity for profiting by the 
training which these exercises afford, and that, on the other hand, 
the decline of peace maneuvers and the excessive attention which in 
the beginning of the present century was given to what he calls "the 
unproductive niceties of parade drill " preceded Prussia's most terrible 
disasters. 

Frederick the Second gave the most careful attention to the training 
of his troops on the maneuver fields of Potsdam, Spandau, and Berlin, 
and this careful and intelligent work undoubtedly contributed in a very 
great degree to the victories which he won in the seven years' war. 

Von Schellendorff says — 

that the military genius of Frederick the Great certainly does not surfer if we 
admit that without such troops as had been trained by him for war he could never 
have carried out his plans, and that without such an excellent army the battle of 
Leuthen, fought against the threefold superiority in numbers, could not have pos- 
sibly resulted in a Prussian victory. 

After his death, the training of the troops suffered from the fatal 
tendency to make mathematical precision the most important part of 
the soldier's training, and this, coupled with the tendency to make 
the maneuvers more spectacular than practical, preceded the disasters 
of the years 1800 and 1807. On the reorganization of the army which 
followed these unfortunate years an effort was made to put the peace 
maneuvers on a sounder basis, and practical training for actual serv- 
ice in the Held is now the object sought to be attained in Germany 
and in Switzerland. 

The entire chapter on kl Peace maneuvers" in Von Schellendorff's 
book is well worth study, because of the interesting information and 



91 

valuable suggestions which it contains on the various phases of peace 
maneuvers. All the countries except America which maintain armies 
now consider that the training which is obtained by maneuvers is abso- 
lutely essential to the proper development of a force, and the Swiss 
people, who have no greater fondness for paying taxes than their fel- 
low-republicans in America, spend $400,000 every two years for the 
purpose of giving commanding officers, staff officers, and all the dif- 
ferent members of the force that practical experience in the per- 
formance of a soldier's duty which maneuvers alone afford in advance 
of actual campaigning during a war. 

The general principle upon which the maneuvers were arranged in 1900 
is similar to that governing in other years. The practical experience 
in the held begins with the training of companies, then of battalions, 
then of regiments, and finally culminates in the grand maneuvers in 
which divisions and army corps take part. A portion of the troops 
represented an invading army advancing from the Austrian frontier 
near the Boden See, and the balance of the troops represented a 
defending force, which was to drive back their opponents. 

Carefully prepared orders relating to all the arrangements for the 
maneuvers were printed in advance. These included clear and explicit 
directions in regard to the transport, medical, veterinary, and field-post 
service. Arrangements were made for taking the sick to the different 
hospitals specified in printed orders. 

From the 10th to the 12th of September the maneuvers were car- 
ried on by brigades; from the 13th to the loth of September a division 
operated against a division, and on the 17th and 18th of September 
the Third Army Corps was engaged in operations against a combined 
division. In the operations in which division opposed division it was 
supposed that an army from the east had advanced from the St. 
Gallen Rhine Valley as far as Wyl, and had occupied the Torgen- 
burger Pass as far as Reichen. An army from the west had assem- 
bled on the highlands near Brueten, with certain portions in echelon 
along Greif en Lake. Operations began on the morning of the 13th of 
September at 9 o'clock and lasted without interruption until the 
"cease fire' 1 sounded on the 18th. Excellent maps of the terrain 
embraced in the maneuvers were issued to all officers, to all noncom- 
missioned officers of cavalry, to all sergeants of other arms, and to all 
cyclists and orderlies. 

The troops were supplied with blank ammunition, 100 rounds to 
each infantryman; of these 15 were to be expended in the preliminary 
work. 25 during the brigade maneuvers, and 60 during the maneuvers 
between the army corps and divisions. The cavalry received 60 rounds, 
and the artillery 780; the engineers 60, and the telegraph companies 
18 per man. 

It is not necessary for the purposes of this report to discuss the sham 
battles which were fought during the maneuvers. 

The least important part of maneuvers is the imitation battle. No 
plan has ever been devised by which the conditions of an engagement 
between two opposing hostile forces can be even approximated in time 
of peace ; but in the administrative work, in the duties of the staff, the 
movements of troops, the disposal of the force in an advance, or for 
the protection of a defensive position, most valuable and useful 
experience can be obtained by officers and men. The preliminary 
orders, and the orders which were issued each day, translations of 

11590—03 7 



02 

which are in the appendix, will serve to give an accurate idea of the 
work done during the maneuvers of 1900. 

The following figures were obtained by the kindness of Colonel 
Gutzwiller, of the Swiss military department. It will be borne in 
mind that all of the marching- is done in heavy marching order. 

On the 13th of September the Thirteenth Brigade of infantry marched 
on an average 38 kilometers (23£ miles); the Seventy-Sixth Battalion, 
which was in cantonments at the farthest distance to the north, marched 
41 kilometers (25£ miles). On this march the brigade made an ascent 
of 417 meters (1,369.77 feet). The Seventh Division marched from 25 
to 35 kilometers (15i to 2H miles), and was engaged in the battle exer- 
cises between four and five hours on the 13th and 15th of September, 
and practically the same amount of work was done by the Sixth Division 
on the 18th of September. On the loth of September the Third Army 
Corps had in cantonment in Zurich and its vicinity 1,125 officers, 
25,343 men, and 4,190 horses. 

Notwithstanding the fact that this very considerable body of troops 
was in the city there was, so far as I could learn, the most excellent 
order and discipline, and the quiet of the city on Sunday was in no 
way disturbed. 

At the review by the chief of the military department. Colonel 
Midler, there marched past 1,002 officers, 22,221 enlisted men, and the 
cavalry had 3,357 horses. 

Elsewhere I have referred to the fact that, as a result of the action 
of the Government in the purchase of horses for the cavalry and the 
subsequent sale to the men of that arm of the service, the standard of 
excellence of the horses throughout Switzerland is very high, and 
any country might have been well satisfied to see over 3,000 such horses 
belonging to one army corps. 

The division which was organized for the maneuvers on the 17th 
and 18th of September consisted of 12 battalions of infantry, 7 squad- 
rons of cavalry, 6 field batteries, and a division of position artillery, 
and numbered about 12,000 men, with 76 guns. 

The health of the troops was exceedingly good; the largest sick 
report was on the 15th of September, namely, 356, or 1.23 per cent of 
the entire force. 

CONCLUSION. 

SELECTIOX OF OFFICERS. 

A study of the armies of the world will show that when a country 
makes merit and capacity the basis for the selection and promotion of 
its officers it gets better results than if it were to let favoritism or 
political influence control. 

If the military forces exist in order to do in the most effective man- 
ner possible the work which an armed force must do when war begins, 
it is absolutely necessary to make proved merit the basis for the selec- 
tion or promotion of officers. When a people has for years re- 
garded many of the positions of a civil nature connected with the 
administrative work of city, county, State, and nation as the legitimate 
and proper rewards for those persons who have strong political influ- 
ence, it is hardly to be expected that in time of war the whole temper 
of the nation should change and that they should apply a totally 
different principle to military positions. 



93 

Yet it is hard to understand why a generous and noble people should 
be willing- to trust the feeding, the transportation, and the command 
of those citizens who volunteer to risk their lives for their country's 
defense to incompetent or untrained officers. The history of every 
war in which this country has been engaged shows that this course 
has sometimes been followed. While the men are suffering there is 
much indignation, but when the war is ended, and the thought that 
lives^ave been needlessly squandered has. by lapse of time, lost its 
horror, the people have shown themselves indifferent to these great 
questions, and have permitted conditions to continue which were cer- 
tain in the future to entail needless suffering and useless death. 

The little republic of Switzerland sets us an example which we may 
study with profit, and as we contrast the conditions of their military 
forces with those of our own, it must be apparent to everyone that 
they have embodied in their system the true principles of democracy. 
No political influence, no social backing, no financial power can take 
a man from civil life and make him an officer of any rank without his 
having gone through the ranks and having completed with credit the 
work deemed necessary to quality him for a commission. 

The truth should be recognized by the American people, that if they 
want' the best and most efficient military system which it is possible to 
have, it is absolutely necessary that merit and efficiency should be 
the basis of selection and promotion. 

The German general staff, which has produced a most competent 
and efficient body of officers, has made merit an absolute prerequisite 
to appointment and promotion, and this has been done, not because 
those high in office did not enjoy the privilege of recommending their 
friends and relatives for high positions, hut because it was plainly 
recognized that the most effective righting machine could onhy be 
secured by eliminating those influences which were opposed to the 
efficiency of the forces. In the same way Switzerland, with its 
strongly democratic principles, the very antithesis, in its political and 
social life, of Germany, has adopted a system which precludes the pos- 
sibility of selecting untrained men to lead their soldiers or to perform 
the administrative work of the forces in time of war. 

it is for the American people to decide whether they will perpetuate 
a S3 T stem which was partly responsible for the awful record of the 
Crimean war and for some of those phases of our last two wars w r hich 
w r e prefer to leave hidden by the mist of intentional forgetfulness, or 
whether they will so organize their fighting forces that merit, training, 
and efficiency shall be the stepping-stones to success, in accordance 
with the true principles of American institutions. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

It will be admitted by eveiyone that no army which the American 
people may maintain will be strong enough numerically to carry on 
any foreign war. It is probable that the maximum strength of the 
American Army in time of peace will never exceed 100,(>0(). The 
guns for harbor defense which, in accordance with the recommenda- 
tions of the Endicott board, are being placed along our coast will 
require for their service over 80.000 artillerymen. That our 'Army 
will be inadequate for all our needs in time of war admits of no doubt, 
and it should have a reserve of its own. 



94 

It would be comparatively easy to lengthen the term of enlistment, 
so that after the completion of an enlisted man's service with the 
colors he would be liable for a certain number of years to return to 
his regiment in time of war. But even if this were done, the force 
would still be inadequate, and it should be inadequate, for the United 
States will take a downward step when it plans to do all its lighting 
with professional soldiers; the people must rally to its defense in time 
of war, and any plan of military organization which does not recog- 
nize this is un-American; the people should and will demand the privi- 
lege of fighting for their country if it is attacked, and it is for every 
reason proper that a plan should be formulated in accordance with 
which the citizens of the country will be allowed to volunteer. 

The time to decide what that force should be, how it is to be organ- 
ized, and how its officers should be selected, is when the country is at 
peace. It is practically certain that in our next war, as in our last 
two, a volunteer army will be organized, and all the necessary ques- 
tions connected with the organization of this force should be settled 
now, not only because of the importance of deciding in advance such 
vital questions, but also because it directly concerns the status and 
obligations of the existing State forces. 

It is only just to the officers and men of the existing National 
Guard, or State militia, that the relation of those forces to the Army 
in time of war should be so clearly settled that the citizens who enlist 
in these forces in time of peace should know exaetty what obligations 
and responsibilities they incur. 

The status of the existing State forces can only be settled by 
Congress. This can be done by the simple exercise of the power 
vested in Congress by Article I, section 8, of the Constitution of the 
United States, which provides that "The Congress shall have power 
* * * to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
militia." * * * 

If the existing State forces are the militia of the Constitution, there 
can be no question about the right of Congress to provide for their 
organization, and it would be equally competent for Congress to 
specify, in providing for this organization, what use would be made of 
the State forces in time of war. 

We should not forget the uncertainty, doubt, and misunderstanding 
which in some States marked the period during which the volunteer 
forces were being organized, nor the intense feeling which in some 
National Guard organizations sprang from the conviction that the 
responsibilities and duties of that force had not been understood by 
those high in authorit} r . Surely the greatest service which could be 
rendered to the National Guard and which, at the same time, would 
be a service to State and nation, would be to put that force in sueh a 
position that every man in it would know what he could be ordered to 
do in time of war; and at the same time the right of the proper 
authorities to order these State forces to perform its duties should be 
made perfectly clear. 

Such action on the part of Congress would, in all probability, only 
be possible in the event of a practical agreement by the members of 
the National Guard that such action was wise; doubtless in many 
instances such a reorganization might result in certain changes which 
would not have the approval of individual officers of the Guard, but 
the question is of such vital importance that it is safe to assume that 
individual feelings will be subordinated to the general public good. 



95 

I have not attempted to discuss any of the details connected with 
these questions, for the reason that in the discussions which have for 
many years been carried on regarding our military organization the 
fundamental principles have too often been obscured by the promi- 
nence which has been given to nonessential details. 

In conclusion I beg to submit the following suggestions regarding 
the action by Congress which would give us a military system based 
upon sound principles, which would make that system conform to the 
spirit and traditions of our institutions, and which would materially 
increase the usefulness of the State forces: 

First. The principles upon which the best and most efficient general 
staffs of modern armies are organized should be applied to our military 
forces. 

Second. The Army should be given a reserve of its own. 

Third. A plan should be adopted in time of peace for organizing 
the volunteer forces which must supplement the Army in time of war 
and for selecting the officers of these forces. 

Fourth. The militia should be organized by Congress, and the status 
of this force and the character of the dut} 7 which it could be ordered 
to do in time of war should be clear \y detined. 



I have elsewhere referred specificalty to the many officers and 
officials to whom 1 am indebted for help in my work, but I feel that 
in ending this report I should repeat that everyone whom I met in 
England and in Switzerland, without a single exception, manifested 
the most earnest desire to aid me by all means in their power in secur- 
ing the fullest knowledge on the subjects I was studying and to help 
in every way possible the successful completion of the work which 
was being done for the President and for you. 
Respectfully, 

Wm. Cart Sanger, 
Inspector National Guard, New York, 
and late Lieutenant- Colonel of Volunteers. 



APPENDIX 

It has not been thought necessary to print at this time the data 
contained in the appendix to the report. 

96 



o 



-£ 



